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THE
LONDON, EDINBURGH, and DUBLIN
PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE
AND
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE
CONDUCTBD BY
SIR DAVID BREWSTER, K.H. LUD. F.R.S.L.&E. ftc RICHARD TAYLOR, F.L.S. G.$. Astr.S. Nat.U.Mosc. &c. RICHARD PHILLIPS, F.R.S.L.&E. F.G.S. &c. SIR ROBERT KANE, M.D. M.R.LA.
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VOL. XXVIIL
NEW AND UNITED SCIUES OF TITK PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINB, ANNALS OF f HILOSOFBY, AND JOUBNAL OF SCISNCS.
JANUARY— JUNE, 1846.
' ^ w
LONDON:
RICHARD AND JOHN K. TAYLOR, RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET, Printers and Vulilishers to the Universily of London;
SULO BY LONGMAN, SROWN, GR££N, ANO LONGMANS; CADELL; SIMPKIN, NAUBAtL ANO C0.| S. RIOHLBT^ WBITTAEBB AND CO.; ANP SBSBVOOO, atLBBETy ANB MnB, U»NOON : — lY ABAM AND
CHARLES BT.ACK, AND THOMAS CLARK, EDINBURGH ; SMITH ANO SON, GLASGOW; HODGES AND SMITH, DUBLIN: AND G. W. M. REYNOLDS, PARIS.
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" Meditationis est pcrscrutari occulta; contemplation is est admirari perspicua ...... AUaiiratio general quaestionem, qusestio iovestigationem,
tnvettigatio inventionem." — Hugo de S, Vktore,
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CONTENTS OF VOL. XXVIII.
(THIRD SERIES.)
NUMBER CLXXXIV.-^JANUARY. 1846.
P«g«
Mr. R. Hunt on the Influence of Magnetism on Molecular Ar^
rangement (with a Plate) ... .... 1
Mr. R. \y. Fox on certain Pseudomorphous Cr}^stal8 of Quartz ~5 Prof. J. K. Young on the General Expresaion for the Sum of
an Infinite Geometrical Series 10
Drs. T. Tilley and D. Maclagan on the Conversion of Cane<.
sugar into a substance isomeric with Cellulose and Inuline . 12 Mr. G. G. Stokes's Remarks on Professor Challis'a Theoretical Explanation of the Aberration of Light ................ 15
Lieut.-Col. P. Yorkc on the Solubility of Oxide of Lead in Pure
Water 7 17
The Rev. B. Bron win's Equations for the Determination of the Motion of a Disturbed Planet by means of M. Hansen's Al»
tercd Time 20
Lieat.-Col. Sabine on some Points in the Meteorology of Bom- bay (with a Plate) 24
Mr. T. 'Taylor on some New Species of Animal Concretions . . 36 Mr. C. B. Cay ley's Inquiries in the Elements of Phonetics . . 47 Mr. A. Smith on Fresnel's Theory of Double Refraction .... 48 Mr. J. D. Dana on the Origin of the constituent and adventi-
tious Minerals of Trap and the allied Rocks 49
Mr. G. B. Jcrrard's Reflections on the Resolution of Algebraic
Equations of the Fifth Degree G3
Proceedings of the Royal Society 64
Action of Nitric Acid on Wax 66
Dry Distillation of Wax 67
Analysis of Phosphate of Alumina, by M. A. Pelesae 68
A New Planet G9
Notice of an Aurora Roreiills soon at Manchester 2D
Meteorological Observations for November 1845 71
Meteorological Observations made by Mr. Thompson at the Garden of the Horticultural Society at Chiswick, near London ; by Mr. Veall at Boston ; by the Rev. W. Dunbar at Applcgarth Manse, Dumfrics-shire ; and by the Rev. C. Clou&ton at Sand wick Manse, Orkney 72
NtTMRRR TLXyYV— FRHRUARY.
Mr. H. Collcn on the Application of the Photographic Camera
to Meteorological Registration (with a Plate) 73
a"2
I
If CONTENTS OF VOL. XXVI II. — THIRD SERIES.
Page
Mr, G. G. Stokes on Fresners Theory of the Aberration of
Light 76
Mr. E. Wilson's Observations on the Development and Growth
of the Epidermis 82
The Rev. J. ChallU on the Aberration of Light, in Reply to
Mr. Stokes 2Q
Dr. A Wnllpr's Ohsfirvntifvna on ri*rtoin MnlpctilRr Artiona nf
Crystalline Particles, &c. ; and on the Cause of the Fixation of Mercurial \"apour8 in the Daguerreotype Process (with a
Plate) 94
Note to Mr. Hennessy't* Pat)er on the Connexion between the Rotation of the Earth and the Geological Changes of its Sur-
fare , 106
The Rev. W. V. Harcourt's Letter to Henry Lord Brougham, F.R.S. &c., containing Remarks on certain Statements la
his Lives of Black. Watt, and Cavendish 106
Mr. J. Cockle on a Proposition relating to the Theory of Equa-
. tiona ■ ^ 132
Mr. R. Moon on Fresnel's ^fheory of Double Refraction .... 134 Mr. R. Moon's Reply to some Remarks contained in Prof, Young's recent paper " On the Evaluation of the Sums of
Neutral Series . , ' 186
J^niticus's llemarks on a Paper by Mr. Moon on Fresnel's
Theory of Double Refraction 144
Tlie Editor's Observations on the subject of the i)receding Com- munications 146
Proceedings of the Royal Society 147
Analysis of a Substance occurring with Disthene, by M. A. Ue-
lessc 150
Hydnited Silicate of Magnesia, by M. A. Delesse 152
Analysis of the Elie Pyrope or Garnet, by Prof. Council. ..... 152
Analysis of Meteoric Iron from Burlington, Ostcgo County , New
York, by Mr. C. H. Rockwell 154
Preparation of Chloro-acetic Acid 15^
Composition of Phosphate of Ammonia and Magnesia 155
Composition of Common Phosphate of Soda 155
On several New Series of Double Oxalates, by M. Recs Heece 156 Reaction for the Digcovery of Sulphurous Acid, by ^L Heintz. . 157
Analysis of the Molares of a Fossil Rhinoceros 158
Experiments on the Yolk of Eggs, by M. Goblcy 158
Meteorological Observations for December 1845 159
Table ICQ
NUMBER CLXXXVl ,-MARCH.
M. C. Langberg on the Determination of the Temperature and
Conducting Power of Solid Bodies 161
CONTENTS OF VOL. XXVIII. — THIRD SERIES. V
Page
Mr. T. Hopkins on the Causes of the Semi-diurnal Fluctua- tions of the Barometer 166
'fhc Rev. J. Cballis on the Principles to be applied in explaining
the Aberration of Light 7 176
Prof. J. W. Draper on the Cause of the Circulation of the Blood 178 Mr. J. Cockle on the Existence of Finite Algebraic Solutions
of the general Equations of the Fifth, Sixth, and Higher
Degrees .. 190
Mr. T. Taylor on some New Species of Animal Concretions. . 192
Lieut.-Col. Sabine on the Winter Storms of the United States 200 Mr. R. C. Taylor on the Anthracite and Bituminous Coal-Fields
in China 204
Prof. C. F. Schoenbein on the Conversion of the solid Ferrocya-
nide of Potassium into the Sesqui-fcrrocyanide .~ 211
Prof. C. F. Schoenbein on the Decomposition of the Yellow and
Red Ferrocyanidcs of Potassium by Solar Light 211
Prof. Potter's Reference to former Contributions to the Phi»
losophical Magazine, on Physical Optics 212
Prof. J. R. Young on DifFerentiation as applied to Periodic
Series; with a few Remarks in Reply to Mr. Moon 213
Mr. Moon in Reply to Jesuiticus 215
Proceedings of the Royal Society 219
— Royal Astronomical Society 223
Experrmentg on the Spots on the Sun, by Prof. Henry 230
Method of Purifying Oxide of Uranium from Nickel, Cobalt
and Zinc, by Prof. Wohler 232
On some New Double Haloid Salts, by M. Poggiale 232
On the Volatile Acids of Cheese, by MM. Iljcnko and Laskowski 234
On the Double Salts of the Magncsian Group 235
Prej>anitiou of Hypophosphites 236
Biela's Comet 238
Meteorological Obser\''ations for January 1846 289
Table 240
NUMBER CLXXXVII.— APRIL.
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Mr. W. Brown, Jun., on the Oscillations of the Barometer, |
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with particular reference to the Meteorological Phenomena |
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of November 1842 (with Six Plates) |
241 |
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Prof. De Morgan on the Derivaticm of tlie Word 'ITieodolitc. . |
287 |
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Mr. T. Graham's Reply to the Observations of M. Pierre, on |
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the Proportion of Water in the Magncsiau Sulphates and |
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289 |
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M. F. Donny on the Cohesion of Liquids and their Adhesion to |
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291 |
Vi CONTENTS OF VOL. XXVIII. —THIRD SERIES.
. _ , . _ . . ^
Dr. Faraday's Experimental Researches in Electricity.— Ninc- teenth Series. On the Magnetlzatiua of Light and the lUu-
mi nation of Magnetic Lines of P'orce , . . 294
Licut.-Col. Sabine on tlie Cause of remarkably Mild Winters
which occasionally occur in England 817
M- Pmiillot's Observations on the Recent Ilcsearches of Prof.
Faraday . . . « 324
Mr. G. G. Stokes on the Aberration of Light 3^
Analysis of Diaspore from Siberia, by M. A. Damour 336
On Horacic ^ther. r337
Action of Boracic Acid on Pyroxylic Spirit * 339
On a Simple Method of Protecting from Lightning, Buildings
with Metallic Roofs, by Prof. Henry ... 7. 340
Observations on Capillarity, by Prof. Henry 341
Obituary ■ 343
Meteorological ObservationB for Febniary 1846 343
Table 344
NUMBER CLXXXVIIL-.MAY.
Dr. Faraday's Thoughts on Ray-vibrations 345
Mr. J. E. Teschemacher on the Wax of the Chamicrop8 .... 350 Mr. J. Middlcton's Analysis of a Cobalt Ore found in Western
India 352
Mr. H. E. Strickland on the Structural Relations of Organized
Bcingg 354
Mr. W. J. Kenwood's Abstract of Meteorological Observations made during the year 1845 at Gongo Soco, in the interior of
Brazil .. . . . 3G4
Dr. R. D. Tiiomson on Pegmine and Pyropine, animal sub^
sUinccs allied to Albumen ^77. 368
Tlie Rev. B. Bronwin on certain Definite Multi))le Integrals . . 373 Mr. W. R. Birt on the Storm-Paths of the Eastern Portion of
the North American Continent 379
Prof. De Morgan on the first introduction of the words Tangent
and Secant ~ . . 382
Dr. J. Lhoteky's Complete Collection of Kepler's Works .... 387 The Rev. J. Challia on the Aberration of light, in Reply to
Mr. Stokes " 393
Mr. J. Cockle on the Finite Solution of Equations 31^5
Dr. Faraday's Experimental Researches in Electricity. — Twen* tieth Series. On new Magnetic Actions, and on the Mag- netic Condition of all Matter . ". .^96
Prof. Louyet's Description of a new Mercurial Trough 406
Proceedings of the Royal Society. 7 ■ • 40S
CONTENTS OF VOL. XXVIII.— THIRD SERIES. vii
Pas?
Note hy Mr. T. Hopkina on his Paper on the Semi-diurnal Fluc- tuations of the barometer 416
On some new Compounds of Perchloride of Tin, by M. Lewy. . 41G Analysis of two species of Kpiphytes, or Air Plants, by John
Thomson. A.M 420
Analysis of Ceradia furcata Resin, hy Robert D. Thomeon, M.P. 422
Meteorological Observations for March 1846 423
Tahl<> 424
NUMBKR CLXXXIX.-JUNE. Dr. D. P. Gardner's Researches on the Functions of Plants.
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with a view of showing that they obey the Physical Laws of |
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Diffusion in the Absorption and Evolution of Gases by their |
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425 |
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Dr. C. F. Schcenbein on the relation of Ozone to Hyponitric |
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432 |
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Ml* T rrmlinTn nn tVip OnmTirxsit'inii of tViA l!*irp-l~inmrv t\f t'liA 1"1X« A • VJiCVllaiil \Jll Lll^ Vy^^lXJ Li(J91iil\Jl« \ft X lie* J-yclliilJ viz LUw |
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Newcastle Coal Mines |
437 |
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Dr. J. Stenhouse's Observations on the Resin of the Xanthorcra |
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hastilis, or Yellow Gum-resin of New Holland |
440 |
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443 |
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Messrs. Scoresby and Joule's Experiments and Observations |
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on the Mechanical Powers of Electro-Magnetism, Steam, |
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44d |
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Dr. Faraday's Experimental Researches in Electricity. — Twen- |
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tieth Series. — Action of Magnets on Metals generally (con- |
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cbided) |
455 |
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The Astronomer Royal on the Equations api)Iying to Light |
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under the action of Mac^nctisra |
4G9 |
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The Rev. W. V. Harcourt's Letter to Henry Lord Brougham, |
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F.R.S. &c., containing Remarks on certain Statements in |
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his Lives of Black, Watt and Cavendish |
478 |
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NUMBER CXC— SUPPLEMENT TO VOL. XXVIII. |
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The Rev. W, V. Harcourt's Letter to Henry Lord Rrouffham, |
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F.R.S. &c., containing Remarks on certain Statements in |
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his Lives of Black, Watt, Emd Cavendish (concluded) |
505 |
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Prof. Owen's Observations on Mr. Strickland's Article on the |
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525 |
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Prof. Marignac's Observations on Messrs. Lyon Playfair and |
Joule's Memoir on Atomic Volume and Specific Gravity . . 527
VIII CONTENTS OF VOL. XXVII K — THIRD SERIES.
Page
Tlic Astronomer RoyaVg Remarks on Dr. Faraday's Paper on
Kay-vibrations 532
Mr. It> Mallet's Explanation of the Vorticose Movement, as- sumed to accompany Earthquakes 537
Prof. E. Wartmann on the Causes to which Musical Sounds produced in Metals ])y discontinuous Electric Currents are
^ttrihu table <««i««<>»t««tt ........ « « » » - ■- 544
Mr. K. F. Tcsclicmacher's Account of various Substances found
in the Guano Deposits and in their V^icinity 546
Dr. Gregory's Notes on the Preparation of Alloxan 530
On Chloroazotic Acid 555
Notices of New Localities of Rare Minerals, and Reasons for
uniting several supposed Distinct Species, by Francis Alger . 557 Notice on certain Impurities in Commercial Sulphate of Copper,
by Mr. S. Pies^c 565
On a New Eudiometric Process, by Prof. Graham 566
Equivalent of Chlorine 566
On Hippuric Acid. Benzoic Acid, and the Sugar of Gelatine. . 567 Comparative Analyses of Oriental Jade and Tremolite, by M.
Damour 568
Meteorological Obgervations for April 1846 569
— Table .T 570
Index 571
PLATES.
L llluttrative of Lieut.-Col. Sabine's paper on the Meteorology of Bombay.
If. Ilhistrtitive of Mr. Hunt*a paper on the Influence of Magnetism on Molecular Arrangement.
in. Illustrative of Dr. Waller's paper on the Molecular Actions of Cry- stallinc Particles. — Mr. CoUen's paper on the Application of l*hoto- graphy to Metcoroloj^ical Registration.
TV,-)
Vf. Illustrative of Mr. Brown's paper on the Meteorological Phaeno» Vfl. " mcna of November 1842.
YUL
ixJ
Errata and Addenda.
Page 1 90, Note **, between ** 3." and " p." add vol. xxvii. .7. 391. for Sa/is dc/u/uto read ^<^^i^'
, for Bonlsc/iit rcail liartschii.
... 393, for Sagimmibm read SagaMnsidua,
THE
LONDON, EDINBURGH and DUBLIN
PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE
AND
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.
[THIRD SERi£SO
JANUARY 1816.
I« The Itifluctice of Ma'^uclism on Mnfrndar Arrangement, Btf Robert Hunt, Keeper qf Mimtt^ iiccords^ Museum iEconimU GeoU^.
rWHh a Plate.]
7b Bichard Phillij>s, Esq,, F.IiS. Dear Sib,
J-TAVING been encaged some time since in invcstigaiing the iiilluences oT bodies on each other in the dark, the results uf which invebligaiions were published uiuler ihe liile of ^Thermograpbvt'' I then observed many peculiar effects which kd m to Wieve that magnetic electridtV had aome in* flnence in determining the arrangements of molecules. From that time until a few dajrs sinc^ the subject has rested with me without any lurtfaar research. Ha? in^ however put the sutject to the test of experimental examination, I am induced, the results being of greal interest, to transmit to 3'ou an ao» count of my ezperiroents. In doina this, I shall, for the pre* ^ sent, conBne myself strictly to n description of the arrange* ments used and the results obtained, reserving any theoretical views for some future period, when by a greater number and vnriety of experiments it appears probable some general law of action may be satistacLurily deduced.
1. I placed a corict. lUrnled solution of nitrate of silver in a test-tube, ap^ninst the poius ot a permanent horse-shoe magnet, haviiii/ aiioiher tube coiiiaitiiii'^ a similar solution not in con- 1 tact with it. The crystallization commenced first iu the tube ■ connected with the magnet, immediately at the point opposite the upper surface of the metal (Plate II. fig. 1) ; a large tabular crystal shot off from this pomt towards the bottom of the fliass, difiding the loWer portion of the fluid in two parts* Other cmtals sprung off from difierent points above and be* Pka. Magi & S. Vol 28. No. 184. Jan. 1846. B
« I
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d Mr, R. Hunt on the InjUunce o/ Magnetim
low this crystalline plate, but all of th«iu ornugod tbetnsclves at angles inclining towards the magnet; no crystallizatioii taking place in the upper stratum of the Huid. In the otb«r tube, crystals formed irregularly throughout the fluid, but in no part were the crystals so dense as in t!ie tube which 1 sup- pose to be under the intliience of magnetism.
2. With a view of determining ii the cooling influence of tiiL iiieial had anything to do with the crystalline arrangeineiit, portion^j of the same boliiiUiii of" nitrate of silver were put into glass capsules. One of tliese wa^ jjlaced nL!;iiinst tin poles of the magnet, and the other in cuiiiact. witli a mass ol brass of the same weight. In the first, ciybiallization commencetl op- posite the north pole of the magnet, and proceeded slowly m regular lines to crystallize o?er every part ; all these lines have a tendency towards the poles of the magnet. In the capsula in contact with the bras^ cnrstalliaation commenced at a pomt furthest from the metal, and even when the fluid had become quite coldy nearly one quarter of it» which was nearest the mass of metal, remained quite free from any crystalline formap tion.
3. To exhibit this in a more striking manner, a capmile was placed between the mass of brass and the magnet, in con- tact with ( nch, as shown in fi<^. 2; the solution of nitrate of silver in this case, not being so concentrated as that previ- ously used, the arrangement was allowed to remain at rest for some hours. It was then found that crTstallization Inul taken place only over one lion ol the fluid, and that innneUiately in conncxKUi wiih the north pole of tiie ina^et, except three long crystals which sprung from the fluid ojiposite the south pole, and were directed towards those springing from the north pole. This experiment was repeated Ibnr times, and, ekoept when the solution waa ao conoentraled aa toeiystalliae almost immediately, the same rssnlt was obtained.
4. The phnomenon of molecular disposition under m^ netic influence ie pleasingly seen by a modtficatbn of the ar» rangement described. The two glass capsules with their so- lutions are placed on a plate of glasa blackened on its UDder surface, one glass being put in contact with the brass and the other with the magnet. Their images are to be observed in the black mirror on which they rest, the light falling upon tlicm Mt :in angle of about 25'. As the fluids cool, the cir- cul.ii ing currents cohMircd hy their refracting powers are «ecn in il«e mirror. In the unage of the capsule in contact with the brass, no regularity oi circulatory movement is observable; but in that under magnetic influence, a series of perfectly re- gular curved lines procee<l iroui the circumlerence to tiic
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4
ofi Molecular Arrangemefii, S
centre; and these are crossed by small streamers springing laterally from these primary curves, presenting an appearance similar to that shown in fi<^. 3. These curves are con^tnmly varying in position, but they uailbrmiy preserve the uuuo&t
regularity.
5. The magnet was suspended from a tripod, anil two steel needles attached to its poles; ihcsi/ needles were niaile u> dip into a solution ot nitrate of silver m a watch-glass. As liic pellicle fornit;ti over the suriuce, i: arranged itsell ia a series of curved line^, as represented in fig. which are strikingly ftimibr to those produced by sprinldioff iron-filing on stretched paper placed over a magoet. Thet these curves •re due to magnetic iofluence there cen be no donbit as no such tSkci could be produced by any oooling influence, inde- pendent of magnetic excitation.
6» A similar arrangement was allowed to remaiii in action Ibr iMFelve hours* At the end of this time crvstaUisation had taken place in every part of the Auid» but there was an evi- dent tendency to a cttrvillnear arrangement of the crystals. Around the wire depending from the north pole of the mag- net, some revived sdver had made its appearance: no such change was di&rovered at the south pole.
7. Wires bin)ilai!y suspended were dipped into a snluiion of sulphate ot non. Crystallization commenced aruunci the wire at the north pole, but after a few hours crystals had formed around both of the wires, but in the greatest (juanuiy aruumi ilic north pole wire. On removing them from the so- lution, the crystals were found to present an arrangement si- milar to that represented in fig. 5, showing obviously a ten- dency to arrange themselves Mong lines « magnetic direi> tion,
^ 8. A soltttion of protonitrale of mercury was placed tinder similar circumstances} crvstslliKation com'meiiCfSd at the wire
sus])ended from the north pole^ and proceeded rapidly ton line midway between the two wires ; one-half of the fluid being crystallized and the other remaining fluid. At length a few crystals formed around the wire hanging from the south pob, which all took a direction towards She opposite arrangement of crystals.
i). With a more dilute solution, tlie rrystallization of the ni- trate of mercury took place only around the wire at the north pole, ami ininiediatel y at the central point between the two wires, ironi v%hich .smuii needle-sitaped crystals radiated to- wards either pole.
10. A plate of glass, wiil» an edge of clay, forming a shal- low trough) was placed upon the poles of an electro-magnet^
B2
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4 On the Injlucnce of Magnetim on Molecular Ai t angement.
capable of supporting fifty pouiuls when connected with a single galvanic pair excitea by water acidulated with sulphu- ric acid. On pouring a warm and tolerably strong solution of nitrate of mercury into the trou<Th, there wns itrimediately fbrincd over the surface n series of beautifully regular curves from pole lo ]>ole, as shown in fig. 69 which also represents the arrangement.
n. A similar glass hough, filled with a moderately strong solution of tlie nitrate of mercury, was si!|)p()i t<jd on the poles of the same electro-mairnet, coimectetl wiih a small battery of aiuoi c peuiiaueiit, bul less powerful lu rangemeiil, and all was allowed to remain at rest until crystallization had taken place. The result was similar to that already described (9.)) but much more strikingly shown* The order of arrangement taken by the crystals is shown in Plate IL fig* ?•
18. A plate of copper with an edging of wax was placed on the electro-magnet in the same manner as the glass plate; over it a very weak solution of nitrate of silver was quickly poured ; the plate immediately blackened from the decompo- sition of the silver salt by the copper. In about a minute the finely divided silver arranged itself into cnnres, as represented in fig. S, which were after a few minutes agfiin destroyed. By using a sheet of rhemienllv-pure copper, obtained by electro- type deposit, I louiifi a ]H'rin;incnt impression of these curves could be obtained, owmg to the oxiilatiou of the copper along the spaces, which the finely divided silver, when distributed in curve-lines, did not cover.
IS. A plate of hard copper, such as is used by engravers, was placed in precisely the same circumstances, and cuveretl witli a tolerably strong soluiiuu 4)f nitrate of silver. It was lefk in contact with the electro-magnet for a night On wash- ing off the deposit of silver which covered it, it was found that the acid of the silver salt had bitten deeply into the plate over an oval ^mce around the poles, leaving a small space between them quite bright. The copper <»ver this etched space was covered with an immense number of minute holes; and be- yond this the oxidation of the surface had proceeded in curved linesi as represented in fig. 9t We thus have perma- nent evidence of the influence of magnetic force in determi« ning chemical action.
14'. Into one of the glass trouij^hs before named, placed on the electro-mnonet, a weak solution of nitrate ol silver was poured, and into this an ccpinlly weak solution of sulphate of iron. In about five minutes precipitation of silver commenced ; this precipitate arranged itself over the glass in curves pro- ceeding from and around the poles in the same manner as it
Digitized by
Mr. IL W« Fo3L on Fseudomot^pkous CrystaU of Qtuartu 5
distrilmted itself over the copper plato* Id a abort time, pre* cipitatloii increesitig'9 two canoiu carved spaees were formed by the fine deposit, proceeding from ooe pole towards the other In opposite direclions, increasbg in width as they pro* ceededy ttnlil they were abruptly checked at a little distance from the poles towards which they were directed ; these spuces being veiy distinct from the first formed curved lines. Fig. 10 reprenents this very interesting arrangement.
These experiments are sufficient to show that magnetism exerts a powerful influence on molecular arrangements, and tliat it regulates the direction of crystalline formations. I hope to be enabled to pursue this interesting inquiry still further; it has most important bearings on many of the great phfpnomena of nature, and 1 am therelare anxious thus early in iij v inquiry to call .atention to the iiiugular and coucliuive result^i which 1 have obtained.
I have the pleasure of lemaining,
Dear Sir, yours truly,
6 Craig*« Court, Dec. 10, 1845. RoBBBT HuilT.
11. On cerlain Pteudomorpkmu Oytfali t^Qftmisu Bif RoBBBT Wbrb Fox» E9q**
I SUBMIT to the Society's notice some spetiniens of quartz, with pseudomorphous octahedral crystals of the same substance, which appear to me to possess a sort of hi- storical interest^ or at least to indicate that a succession of changes must have occurred in the condition of the mineral vein Trom which they were taken* They were Ibund by S* Peters (dealer in minerals) in one of the heaps of vein stooeSf at dieConsoHdated Mines, and I understand were broken from a copper vein in ^^iaUas^" at the depth of about 160 fathoma below the surface. He observed that many of the ciystals contained water, and he secured some of it for me, by carefully breaking some of them. This he did mostly in my presence, and we h:n\ considerable difTiculty in collecting even very small ijortions of\hc licjuid in ditterent [iliials. Two of these por- tions were nearly tasteless, or saline in a very slight degree, as far as 1 could judge from a single thoji of each. In both common salt was detected, and noiiiin^ else in one of the por- tions: but the other, when evaporaieil, left uiuiuic needie- foiiiied crystals, which I was prevented by an accident from examining. The third portion of water was much more in
* Read at a meeting of tlia Cornwall Poly technic Socisty, OB the 8th of Odobor, 1845^ Md coamaaicatod by the Aotiior.
6 Mr. R. W. Fox on Fscudomorphmis Crystals qf QuatiM.
quantity than both the others— nearly a tea-spooiifuly and ob- tained from only one crystal. It was ?ery acrid to the latte^ aod gave very copious precipitates when tested by miiriate of barytas and hydrocvanale of potash, showing the presence of much sulphuric ada and iron. Oxalate of ammonia and ni- trate of silver, indicated, moreover, the presence of lime and muriatic nctd. Tlie saline matter in this water (mostly sul- plinte n{ iron) was equal to one-tenth ot its weight; and if it contained any common salt, of which I am not positive, tlie proportion was very small indeeii. Litmus paper >liowed an excesK of acid, the nature of which was not ascertained.
Many of the pseudomorphoiis crystals are more than an inch in tliaiiiLicr, and are partly or entirely filled witli cry- stalline quartz, whilst others are empty, or partly filled with mora or less numerous fragments of disintegrated fluor. I counted nearly a hundred m such fragments taken from one of the crystals or cavitiesi exclusive of many o^er very small pieces. All the fraoments are corroded, and indicate^ by their rounded edges ancT indented surfaces^ the action of a solvent which penetrated most readily between theplanes qfdeavage*» Besides this disintegrated fluor, perfect octahedrons of fluor occur in the same specimens; but they were rather more im- bedded in the quarts and more protected from injury tlian the others. Water was found alone in some of the pseudomor- phous crystals or cavities, and in others it was found with fragments of fluor, or with crystalline fjuartz.
The most perfect pseudomorphous octaiiedrons occur within large cavities of quartz. Some of the latter are more than two inches in diameter, havuig the same form^ and their sides generally p aval lei to those of the former.
The quartz specimens to which the cnslalb are aLtaclieti, present, when broken, the appearance of^ fortification agate, naving lines parallel to their structure of transparent and milk-white qnartZy dicing in thickness; these seem to indi- cate that the siliceous matter had been deposited at jntenrals of greater or less duration, or at least under different circum- stances. Afier a time an entire change of conditions appa^ rently occurred in the vein, and octahedral crystals of fluor were formed on the quartz; then silex was deposited either in a compact form, or in minute ciystals, and coated the cry- stals of fluor; afterwards fluor a^in appeared, forming octa- hedrons over the others, and mostly with sides and angles par- allel to them. These processes appear from some of^ the
• When crystals of alum were kept for a time in water, the planes of cleavage were fir<«t acted on, and fragments were sepaisted from the cfTCtsU resewbliog those of the tJi»intiiKrat^ fluor.
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Mr. R. W. Fox on Fseudomoi^pium OysUds o/ Qttarisi, 7
cryUds to have been again repeated : then cune a coat of stiex over the fluor, or jadffing nrom the iiue^ mAny coaU of it» forming • tbick eroit» oaving a surface of small quartz ciyitals. Some specimens were Toond at the same time with one or more layers of qunrtz between two or more portions of floor, which tend to confirm these views.
1 think it may be inferred, from the well-defined and smooth impressions which tlie ocUiliedrons of fluor have left in the quartz, and the general parallelism ol the sides and angles of the outer cavities to those of the sniallcr psendomorphous crystals inclosed in ihem*, that the inner and uuLti crystals of fluor were perfect and uninjured until afler the whole se- ries oi them were coated with quartz. At sonic ^ub^eijueiit peiiod then it would appear that other changes occurred in tha wn» and that tlM folutioQ or dettmction m tba floor com-i lanoeiL Soma of tba cavities wfaieh ware found to contaiii. mttar only* as well aa tbota which contained watar together with disiiMegrated fluor, have the rapearance of having been so hermetically scaled, that it is dimcttlt to understand how the liquid solvent could have obtained access to the fluor and abatraoted it from its case. It cannot be supposed that tha pressure of the column of water above it» although equal to more than half a ton on some of the larger crystals, could alone have produced the effects ; for not only must the solvent have been continually admitted thrmiixh tfie crusts of the (}uartz, but the salts resulting from the solution of the fluor must, ot the same time, have passetl through th?m in the oj)- posiie direction, — a sort of endti^inose and ejcosmose must have existed, as I conceive, to produce the phsenomena; whiUt ia other instances, the thick envelopes of quaru were t \ ions and protected the fluor from injury. The salts rcbulLuig Irom the solution of the fluor must have been soluble, although this OQodition seams to present soma difficulties under the circum* iMcas of tha esse; and doubtless the destruction of the fluor waa veij skiwlj affiwted in many instances^ and in others it was bc|pni» but never completed. Tha differences In the saluie ooQtanta of tba watar obtamed from some of the crystab b an- other drOBOMtance of some interest, indicating the existence of different conditions in the vein when tha water was last ad« mitted into tha respective crystals.
The phanooiatta exhibited by these minerals cannot^ I con-
* How aie such coincidences to be accounted for? Are we to asiiuuje that polmming force* have detemiiMd the arrsnaeiiiaBt ? In manv intUmest
the layers of quartz which were inUrjxtst-d between the crystals arc very thin, imperfect, and pervioii'» to wntcr ; but in otl)€rs Uiey twre not lOtSIMi some ol* the inner cryuai;^ now contain water. «
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8 Mr. E« W. Fox on Pieudomor^kous Ctjfstals qf Qi4arisi,
ceiv^ be aoooantad for but by supposing the valer exielin| ia the fissures of the earth to hare been changed by circolatioii from time to time, and to have been charged with difierent ingredients at dtflferent periods.
1 have on former occasions alluded tovarioos cansas which would produce circulation ia the subterranean water% each as the opening or closing of any portions of fissures; the ascent of warm and the desceotof cooler currents of water, in conae' quence of the di^rences in their specific gravities; or in some instances by the pressure of the sea-water acting on the fineth** Nearly two years ago I stated in this room niy views in refer- ence to the operation of this latter cause on laiid springs, and at the same time I attempted to show the possibilitv, not to say probability, of steam existin^^ in fissures below tne water nt n very great depth. I may perhaps be permitted to refer again to this subject, because it appears to me to he one of some interest. I then took it for granted that the tempera- ture of the earth increases in some proportion to the increase ofdepth below its i>urlace, and thnt ifllje ratio be taken at 1° Fabr. for every fort3'-eight feet, as lound in our deep mines, and if Le Roche's data for calculating the elastic force and density of steam be adopted, the forces of steam and of water pressure would balance each other at rather more than nine miles deep, each bein^ equal to the pressurL: ot more than 1400 atmospheres. '1 he clL-nsity of the steam would there be abuuL oiie-loui'lh lIjuL of watci- aL (30 Fahr., ami its tempera- ture above 1050^ Falir. 13iiL tlie temperature may probably not increase so rapidly as this at great depths, and the equi. librium in the pressures of the column of water and of steam may occur much further below the surface, where the density of steam under an augmented pressure of water would» of course, be stOl greater. However this may be, it would seem that, under any probable circumstances in r^rd to the ratio of increase in the earth's temperature^ the increase in the pressure of the lengthened column of water would not keep pace with the rapidly increasing tendency of the water in do* soMiding into more heated parts of the earth to expand into steam, tne elasticity of whicn at very high temperatures, when confined and in contact with water, is greatly angmentcd by very snudl increments of sensible heat.
No water could long remain unchanged into steam below the line of division between them) and were the steam would
* CoUinins of sea and si)nng water, about five feet high, balunccJ against each fither in a UHriiapcd tubs* more than a yew ago« ttlll reoiaiii on* mixed, showing nearly the nune dtftceooe of level as at fini fexceeifing «Bniocb).
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Mr. R* W, Fox on Fseudomorj^ma CryUaU qf Qftariz. 9
be demer thin sny deeper fltation* for it woald be condnui^ ally dimioishiog ia density in descending further, from the Wjgmeotation of the temperature of the ewlh, because the paniimg influence of the increasing beat would much exceed the condensing influence of the extended column of steanii added to that of the nearly constant cdunin of water*
The line of demarcation between the water and steam would, doubtless, conform in some degree to the inequalities of the surface. It may be difVu'iilt ?it first to conceive the steam ca- pnhfc of supporiMig the wntrr, or rather of existing perma- nently under it ; but this dillicuity will, I think, be ol)vinted bv the consideration, that tlic pu:uis of contact may be, for the part, in very narrow iibbin c^, or mere cracks in the rocks; aiul that the water being greatly Jii.aleil, may be much less i\\:\\\fr)U)- tunes the density of the steam ni iinniLdiale contact with it. A continual struggle would, no doubt, exist between the water and steam under such circumstances, so that in laeny places tliey would allemeteljr encroach b^ond the line • of denuurortion ; but as the checks on both would increase in projK>rtion to the extent of their encroachments from the di« minntion of the temperature above and its augmentation beloW) such encroachments would probabl;^ not be very extensive, or of long duration under ordinary circumstances. Suppose a teoiporaty encroachment of the water on the limits of the ateam to ocear at one point* the steam would probably en* croach on the water at another at the same time, and then, reactions taking place, the effects would be reversed. Thus, assuming wliat indeed would appear to follow from admitted tfafa as fiecessari/ consequences^ steam would not only exist below the water, but such oscillations would teiul (o give mo- tion and activity to the water in the neighbouung fissures, causing ii to circulate in the earth more or less ii eely and ex- tensively according to circumstances. In volcanic districts, whuiti ihe heal may be great at compai alively small depths, analogous phasnomena sometimes occur at the surface, which are probably cansed by the action and reaction of steam and water* Amongst these may be included the iotermitdog Geyser springs in Iceland^ as well as some of the mud volca* noes found in Sicily, and in Asia, and America.
It seems probable that earthquakes may be produced by the action of highly elastic vapour rapidly generated at great depthSy in consequence perhaps of copious and sudden in- fluxes of water into intensely heated parts of the earth ; and their lines of direction are doubtless influenced by those of the fissures or veins of the districts in which they occur. But these are phasnomena of comparatively rare occurrence, and
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10 Fn>( J. R. Young ott the General Expression
it is no wonder that they should be io^ when we consid^ how vastly greater must be the force required to upliil the rockv crust of the eartli and wrench it asunder, tlian lhat which will sup|>ort A oolamn of water aqual to th^ thifikntM oi' that oruit.
Since the forti^oing paper was read, I have rather liastily exnmiiied sonic other portions of water taken irnni dilieieiit pseudotiioi pilous crystals. One ol tliosc portions contained muriatic and sulphuric acids, iron, a trace of lime, and of coiuiuon salt. Acid was a little in exctss, and some peroxide of iron was left in the cavity from wiiich lin- water was taken, lii anoilar the sanie acids were detected and souje iron. In the tlnrii porUoii there seemed to be nolhiniif l)esides a little toiTinion salt. In many of the octaliedral cavities, oxide of iron was found, and iomcLimes iron pyrites or cojtpei' jiyritea adhering to the sides; these were apparently ihposituil Uom suinu ul die vvaLcr which hud entered the crvstals in some m- feiances, but in others they were evidently imbedded in the fluor, and, adhering to the deposit of <^uartz, were not dissolved with the former.
Earthj carbonate of iroa occun in aomc cavitiM mixed with fery mmiite cryatals of quarts; and I have cm pModomor* phoos quarts crystal whach is filled with iragmenu of fliior, intermixed with Inmalttcent fraffmenti of carhonale of inm and earthy carbonate of iron, aU curiously oemented together into one maat ; the iron ore being rather in exoeie.
I have also some hollow psendomorphoui crystals of quarta formed origmally on carbonate of iron, which appear to be water-tight, and yet the latter enbitance hasi like the flnoTf been abstracfead.
III. On the General Expression for the Sum of an Infinite Geometrical Scries. By J,]X^ Youiio, Professor Mathe- matks in Belfast CoUege^*
f pHE general expression for the sum of the Infinite series which redooes to r-^ when « u a proper fraction, either po-
* Conunuoicated by the Author.
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Idir Aif Ann cfan InlMh QwmHHtai SutUb* 1 1
iilive oi negative, on account of \he tnatic^ceiice of x^". It
ii usual to consider tlic iniiiute expoueiii in this expre^bicjii
iovariable lhrou<^ljoLit all tlie changes ol / within the limits
0 ami J; altliou^h it i>» known that tor any fixed exponent
short of inBuile, however <rreat it may be, the expression into
which it enters becomes inore and more considerable as r utl-
▼ances ft oru 0 towards i \ and notwithstanding^ the adtluional
fact, ilj^ii when ihi:> exponent is actuullj iniinite, the expre^
I
m idbrmd lo bacwatt vltiiiMliily aqnal to
Uai it is evident -iUu: weight being given to the circum- stances here mentioned — ^tliat this assumption, as to the iiiva- riabiiity of the infinite exponent, is uii warrantable and erro- neous; aid tiiat the exponent must follow some law of varia- tion exactly fitted to counteract and neutralize the tendency which, as j: approaches to 1, the expression x^" would other-
wm Iwf • to dofNurt from mkh «iid nltiiMtdiy to becom 4:*
If X, at any stage of its approach to 1, be generally repre-
Mlid hfl^^'f iImd Um 1«w of vAmtkm alladed lo wiUbi
LXpi oed by oo" — /r ao that is, the exponent must vary as k. Fur it is a remarkable fact that, comnu ncing with the ex- ponent 4 and proceeding onwards to niiinity, we sliall inva* ridbly have
(D'.,...,{i)'.^..,(iy.,_.. (!)'=,._,
And sijite ('3 ...)*' is necessarily zero, and no power short of infinite can give zero, it follows that in order that
(1 \^*' ) may be nniformly sero^ and thai all tendency to
depart from zero may be counteracted, ao" must be ^ oo so that the strictly accuiuLe iuim for S is
wbicb if equal to when k is infinite. And in this manner
» tbe formuldy employed ill my paper (p. 36S» last vol.)i esta* Uiihcd.
I
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12 Dn, Tiliey and Madagaa ou the Comxraon qf Canc'sugittr
In the same way that it has now baen proved that ^1 -^-^ is always equal to *S , whatever be above may it be farther shown that ^1 +-^^* ^ always equal to S",.*; and
1 +-J ) » neoetsariiy infinite when ir is: so
that it IS indisputably true that the extreme of t!ie convergeiU cases of the above series S, usually written in the tbroi
1 — 1 + 1 — 1 + 1 — 1 + &C.
is and that the extreme of the divergent cases, usually
written ill the same form, is really iufiiiite, as b luted in niy former paper; wliich last conclusion could never have been anticipated IVom ilic tiieory hitherto prevalent. The views now developed are only the continuation and completion of those exhibited in my paper on Series submitted to the British Assodation in June 1845. If I have been antidpated in any of these views^ which are doubtless calculated to produce a reform in the existing theory, I hope to be informed of the circumstance through the medium of this Journal. I have only further to add, that when an expression for the conver- gent cases of a series is found — as it often may be by aid of the difllerential theorem — then the general eauivalent of the series may afterwards be ascertained by developing this ex- pression sufficiently far to unfold to us the general form of the remainder. The expression for the convergent cases of the general series, discussed at page 439 of the la^t volume, may m this manner be determined ; and the dcvelojinKnt (jf this expression by common division, as there propo>cti, jurnishes the formula by which tfiat expression must be corrected, in order that the algebraical equivalent of the series may be ex- hibited in its utmost generality. Belfast, November 21, 1845.
I V. On the Conversion of Cane-sugar into a substance isomeric with Cellulose and Inuline. By Thomas 'J'ilij:y, F,sq,^ Ph.D., ami Douglas Maclaoav^ M»D^ F.ItS, Edin.'^
WHEN the juice of beetroot undergoes fermentation at temperatures varying from 30° to ¥f C», the cane- sugar which it contains is at first converted into sugar of grapes, and after some time into mannite, lactic acid and a
* Conmuiiicttcii bj the Cbeoiical Sodelv; hsfingbefla read April 81, 1845. *
I
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into a subslance isomeric mth Cellulose and Inuline. IS
gammy mbttance, Iwvuig a composition identical wit!i ibat of gum-nrabic. This is remarkable, inasmuch as it affords an
instance of what may be called a retrograde chemical action, the sugar being converted into dextrine, — a change similar to that wiiich occurs in ti uits when they h)se their sweetness, and assume that condition commonly called "sleepy/* The conversion of celhdose into dextrine ami sugar seems to be a process of continii il occurrence and giciiL importance in the vegetable cccononn , hut we are not aware of any example of the reverse ot tliis acLiuii, except lliobc inaUuices mentioned above; in the former of which sugar is converted by fermen- tation into a body having all the j)roperties and oompontion of gum ; in the latter, the sogar being changed into oellalofle^* 'We therefore consider Uie observation we are about to describe to be possessed of some interesty as aflfording another case of a similar retrograde action. It lias been observed that the effervescing drinks known as lemonade, gingerade* made by forcing carbonic acid into solutions of sugar variously flavoured with tartaric acid and essential oils, in certain cases lose their fluidity, and assume a thick, slimy consistence* When the bottles containing these thickened liquids are opened, the expansion of the carbonic acid expels llieir con- tents with difficulty, owinjr to their extreme tenacity. Tn- stances of this cliaiige are ot conii[mal occurrence, all the manufacturers of whom we have inquired liaving observed it when the bottles had been kept for some time. Various opi- nions have been expressed by lhet!i as to the cause of the con- version, but it seems to occur invariably when the licjaor is kept long enough. W'c ai e iiulebtetl to Mr. Baildon of this city (Edinburgh) for an opportunity of examining a sample of ^ingerade, in which thb thidEening had occurred. This liquid 18 made bj sweetening an infusion of ginger-roots with cane- sugar, and flavouring it with oil of lemons and tartaric acid ; this is then plac^ in bottlefl^ and carbonic add (breed by pres- sure into the fluid. Another manufacturer uses the following ingredients in the preparation of efiervescing lemonade: — 2 ounces of honey, 4 pounds of sugar, S ounces of citric acid^ % draduns of oil of lemons and 1 ^ ounce of bicarbonate of soda. According to the opinion of this manufacturer* the change occurs chiefly in winter, when the liquid is exposed to cold, and Ire thinks that the addition of a double proportion of honey tends to prevent it. To separate the substiince to which the viscidity was owing, the contents of a bottle were (hgested with six or seven parts of alcohol, under the action of wliich the gummy matter consolidated, and when dried became so bard * See iMulUer's AU» FAjft, Ckcm,, (i. tl teq.
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On a peculiar MeLamorphosi$ of Cane-sugar*
as to be pulverizable. After being powdered* it WM igiin digested and washed with alcoliol uniil nothing mure watdb* solved. When dried at 100^ C. it had the appearance of ft semi-transparent horny substance, and was sufficiently elastic to render pnherization cliflicult. The alcohol contained in solution a ciuaiuity oi mi^mt of a brownish colour, (juite un- Grysialli/abie, and rcfuiered souf by the {ireteoce of the acid used in tli«- nuniuJacture.
The guniuiy substance treated witb cold water slowly reas* sumes its orif^itiai appearance. Vln n treated with « large quanLiLy ot botiing water it foruib a iuucilage, which filters with difficulty. Iodine produces no effect on the solution. Subjected to TfOiniDer's teet for dextrin^ sugai uud mim^ this did not indicate the pre 101100 oC aii^ of ttieie •obotaiioti. With nitric acid it proQaoea oaodic acid. It gives a preeipi- tate with diacetate of lead. It oootains, amr having been washed with alcoho1» a tmalJ quantity of asheiy amoontiBg to 1*S7 per cent. It was analysed in the usual manner.
li 0*746 of substance gave, with oxide of copper and chlo* rate of iK)tasb» 4*070 HO and 1*1785 CO, » 0*04787 H and 0*3244'8 C.
II. 0 1 525 of substance gave 0*098 HO and 0*838 CO, m
0-010222 H and O OfJiTi C.
These numbers, allowance being made of the asheS| givo the fallowing proportions: —
T. II. Atomi* Calculated.
Carbon . . 43-80 43-Sl 24 4.8-71
Hydrogeu . 6 14. 6*80 21 6*25
Oxygen . . 50*06 49-89 21 50*04
From this it would appear that this gummy sobstance is isomeric with cellulose an(i inuline'^.
This substance, which has a composition similar to cellu- lose and inulinc, is evidently formed from llie cane-su£rar in the lemonade, as all its other constituents exist in loo small quantity to admit the idea of their having been its origin.
* Cellulose, Pafsn. Endine. From turaip, Firoml>erg,
Carboti . 4.3-40 Carbon . 43-95
Hydrogen 6' 12 Hydrogen 6*13
Oxyi?en . 50-38* Oxygen . 49-66*»
luuliite. l^arnell. From Dnhlia root. Payen. Osfbon . 4995 Carbon . 44*10
HydragSD 6-30 Hvdrogen 6-17
OiyiSB . 4f)-7.'>f Oxygen . 4tf^
• Ann. des 6c. AW., 1840, u. 73. Uot. * Muider, Uu. cU., i». j203. « Pbll. Mag., vol. iTii. p. IM. ' % dl.» p. 91.
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Mr* G. GL Stokes on the Abenalwn of Ugki, IS
SAtomfsqg»r , • • • CS« H22 OSS 1 water * • * • H Q
I ... gommy substance C24 HSI 091 Tim sabetMioe it formed then from % Momt of Mg»r by the abitraction of 1 atom of water.
As a solution of the gnmmy substance ^ve a compound with lead, we endeavoured to ohtniii by its aid its atomic weijjht. 0*260 of the prec ipit'U( gave of lead nnd oxide of lenii (juaiiLities equal to 0*316 oxide oF lend, which, when al- lowance is made for ashes, is equal to 5.5*H |)er cent, of oxide of lead. We find not enough ol the salt to enable us to make the coinhiistitMi, but have calculated the formuhi from the t|umitity oi iead.
Atoms. Calculated. Carbon . 19-Sl 24- 1834--1. = 18*7
Hydrogen 276 21 2G00 = 2'7
Oxygen • tS'll 91 SlOO^ « Sl*4
PhO . . 55*80 (bund 4 5578*0 = 57*1
From 55'8 per cent, oxide of lead the atomic weight found 4400*0. The calciilatLd one is 4-198*4.
We had imagineii that thib curious change in sugar might have been the Sect of organization, but our friend Mr. John Gooddr WIS kiml enough to onmine the rabfitanoe^ and in^ formed us that he oouraaisoover oo trace of organisation.
V. Rtinarks on Piulc&sor Challis's IJito) elical Explanalion of the Ai/t rralwn of Light. By G. G. 8tok£S, M.A.^ i»ir/- /otv ()f Pembroke College, CamMffge*.
''I'^HERE are a tew points connected with Prof. Challis's X paper on the Aberration of Light, published in the num- ber ot this Magazine for November 1B45, respecting which 1 wish to ofler a lew remarks.
in the first place 1 perfectly agree with Prof. Chailis, that die explanation of aberration is really independent of the manner m which light maj jpaii throngh the eye j bat I can* not agree with him that it is neosnsary to supiMse that we see a star in its true plaoe^ and that it is the wire of the feetescoue widiwhkliitisobserfed thai IS effected bjabertation. Tlie Ibllowuig mode of viewing the sab|eet» doe to Bosoovicfa» wid perhaps put die matter in a clearer point of view.
If we wbh to determine the real or apparent direction of nn object, we may» theoretically speaking, adopt the following plan:— Let two small circuUu' holes be so adjested that the
* Commafiieated hf the Aathor.
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16 Mr. G. G. Stokes on the Abetralion of Lights
light from the object which peseee through the centre of the one shall also pass through the centre of the other. The line join-* iim the centres of the holes will then determine the direction or the object Now this is, in principle, just what is done in
the case of an astronomical instrument, only, the fixed points are replaced by tlie opticai centre of the object-glass of the telescope with which the object is viewed, and bv the wire to which it is relui red. When tiie image of a star is bisected by the w ire, we define the apparent direction of the star to be that of the line joining the optical centre of the object-glass Willi ilie bisecting wire. Wliether it is the wire or the stur which is seen out of its true place, is a (jucation wiih which we have no concern. The answer which we shall be disposed to give to It depends on the theory of aberration which wc adopt According to the theory of aberration whidi I ex- plained in the July number of this Magazine, the answer would of course be^ that It is the wire whidb is seen in its true place.
Tiic principal thingi however, to which I object in Prof. Challis's papery is the reasoning by which he establbhes his equation (5.). In the figure* a 6 is a very small portion of a wave of light,
which in the small time t would be pro- ^ pagated to c<f if the a-ther from a \o h were moving wiih the velocity of the ajther at 6, while, in consequence of the difference in the velocity of the oDther at a and ^, the disturbance at a is |)i opa- c e gated to f. Now Prof. Chilli- takes
cne for the angle through whicli the noimikl Lu Lhu wave's li Gilt is displaced as the wave passes from ab to cd» But a 6' is only the direction in space along which the disturbance at a is propagated, a direction which has no immediate relation to the normal to the wave^ inasmuch as it differs from it by an angle which is of the order of the aberration, the very order of quantities that we are considering. In fSict, according to the reasonin(|^ in m;^ paper, to which Prof. Chatlis does not appear to object, 1 found that the law of aberration does not result from supposing the waves of li^ht to be carried by the moving SBlher, so Ions as its motion is taken arbitrary; and in order to explain aberration, I was compelled to suppose udx-\-vdy-\-v)dz to be an exact differential, at least when the sq?ifire of the aberration is neglected.
It is evidently iiuriKiterial whetlier we make ilie construc- tion that Prof. Chaliis has given, or suppose cf to be the po- sition into which the wave a b would come at the end of the
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Col. Yorke on the SolubiUtjf qfthe Oxuie q/'Lead. 17
lime #, in oonse^oence of tlie velocity of propagation oombbed with the velocity of the aether at a» and suppose that fin hrooght to d in consequence of the diflerence of velocity of the <cther at a and b* It is easy to show tliat cfy* is equal and parallel to so dia^ according to this constrnctioo, the nor* jnal to the wave ongbt to be displaced by the motion of the aether through Uie angle fbd Ironi /btodb, which is jost the contrary direction to that given by Prof. Chaliis's constme* ti«Hi.
Prof. Challis SLL!iis to tliink that the unduhitory theory of Wght caniiot be maintained unless it can be shown that the l:iw of nherration ouffht to be the actual law, ivhafcvrr inav l>e liie motion of the a;fhev. But it is surely suHiciLut to show tliat a conceivahle kind oi iiiuiion exist*? which would lead to the observed law of aberration, }ii ovidcd \vc have no reason for regarding tltat soi l of motion as iinproliablc. Now even were I to allow that udx + vdi/ -\-'wdz cannot, in the case of ordinary fluidsy be an exact differential unless the motion is vectifinear, that wonid not be a fata! objection. For tlie eQua- tions of modon of fluids commonly employed are formed on tlie hypothestt that the mutual action of two elements of the llnid is normal to the surlbce which separates them, whereas one of the most remarkable properties of the sether with which we are acquainted, is the great tangential force which it is ca* pable of exerting, in consequence of which the transversal vibrations which constitute light are propagated with such an immense velocity. *
VL OnOe SdMlity of Oxide of Lead m Pun Water. By LientwCoL Phiup Yorks'I'.
¥N the Philosophical MagazUiefor August 1834, 1 published ^ a Daper on the aetkm of water and air on leml. Some of tho jpnnc^al results eontained in it were confirmed by Bod8«> doin ui two papers; he Iband that 7000 parts of pure water free from acceee of carbonic add dissolved one of oxide of lead ; my experiments gave ~^th to ^^th. Since thai time two papers have appeared on the Mme subject, one by Dr. Ghnsttsont» and one by Mr. R. Phillips, Jun.f The hut- named chemist considers that the oxide of lead is not dis- solved, but merely mechanically suspended in the water, be- ' cause the liquid b deprived of the lead by passing it through
• CoDununicfited by the Chemical Society ; having been read May 17i 1845.
•f" Transnction* of the Roval Socicly of Ediabliljg^ j Chemical Gazette tor Jan. 1, 1845.
PhiL Mag. S, 3. Vol. 2b. No. IS-I. Jan. 1846. C
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IS Col. Yorke on the SolMUy qf the Qxidi qf Lead*
a f»per filter. It It to tbk opinioo that I propose to dimot
attention in the pretaat notice.
The fact that the aqueom tointkm of oxide of load wonUI not pasi throngh a filter was noticed by me in the paper at* reaffy referred to| hot ai the action of torts on the liquid waa just what one observes with soIuUont| at no time allowed for sub'^ideiice made any difference in these appearances ; as the liquid deposited crystals of oxide of lead not only on the lead but on other bodies; as when decomposed hv the voltaic bat- tery it gave metallic lead at tlic iictjntive pole, arid piToxide at the positive; I did not consider tliat the stoppage ol the oxide of lead by the filter was any proof of its not being dis- solved. There siill, however, remains tiiis ijuestion to be an- swered,— In what way does the paper act in reiaiuiiig the ox- ide? and I think that tiie following experiments afibrd ati anawer to the question.
I plaeed some dean rods of lead In boltlea of dlniUed water looeel^r stoppered ; in thla wa^f after removing the roda of ieady I obtained a clear liqaidy whieh» wImo tested by sulphutetled bjdrogeny gave a deep brown colour. On passing uiia liquid through a double filter, which had l>een prerioosly washed with hot distilled wateri it appeared to be very nearly deprived of lead : when two or tfarse fluid ounces had passed through, the filters were removedi washedf then unmersed in a solution of sulphuretted hydrogen, again washed and dried. Some torn fragments of the filters were then mounted in Canada bnlsnm tor examination by the microscope. On examination witli pov- ers of from 150 to 400, the fibres of the flax com- posiiiir tli( paper were seen to be browned, anil in many in- stances it could l>> distinctly observed that the colouring sub- stance occupied tiie interior of the tubular fibre. Now, it is stated by Mr. Crum, in the Philosophical Magazine for April 1844, that cotton wool possesses the power of abstracting the oxide of leid ftotn its soiotlon In ]iaie»iraler« and thai ihB property Is made airallable In the proeeBses for dyeing cotM with the ehromstes. I found thai on filtering a selatbn of oxida of lead In lime water through a triple filtert that whereas the original sdntion gave a deep black when tested by sul« phurettod hydrogen, the filtered liquid gave but a pale brown; and it required that the unfiltared liquid should be dilated with thirty times its volume of water to produee the same test as the filtered.
I then tried the effect of mere immersion of the paper In the aqueous solutions l)efore used. A litt of filtering-pnper ten inches by two inches was boiled in distilled water ami ilitn
put into an ounce phial filled with ihe aqueoits soiuliou ; alter
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Col. Yorke OH the Soiubilil^ ^ ihe Oxide of Lead, 19
gWlMlllig six boan the liquid was poured off and tested : it gave ft brown, and it requirod that the liquid which had not been in contact with the paper should be diluted with ten times its volume of water to produce the same tint, '^hi<^ rx- perimeni was repeated with a stronger soUition of <'\u!(j of lead in water, the water u poured oft' at the end ot lour hours t it tiien i^nve a [>aie brown, and it required that the original litjuici sliuuld be dilutetl witli four times its bulk of water lo produce the snine tint. A fresli portion i>f the same solution was then pom ctl on tlie same paper and lelt tur a night; then, on testing, tlie Jiijuid gave a brown tint, barely fMroeptiblei and it required that the original liauid should be diiiiMil villi firom fifteen to Vmmij timee ite iNNttiM of water to prodiioe the same.
rrom these experiments it is clear that the efiect in ques- tion Is dependent on a power possessed by the paper ui com- mon with sereral other porous bodies and cHrgaalsed fibfeib of separating certain sabetanees from their solutions, a power sufficiently well known, though little onderstood*t in consi- derin|( this view of the subject in the present instance, there is a circumstance of some practical importance which it woukl appear ought to follow, viz. that after the fibres of the paper hnd iu'en saturated vvldi the oxide of lead, then this substance shouM pa'i<i througli m solution. To ascertain whether this was the case 1 iiKule the following experiments.
I obtained a struiiir aqueous solution of oxide of lead by imtnersing slips of cli.a)i lend in about three quarts of distilletl water, contained iii a two lu ( ktd ImrJr, through whicli oxygen gas was passed and mainlaiiicd ia cuiUact with, uiidci a i^li^Ul pressure. In this manner I procured a solution which when quite dear yielded xj^mth of ignited oxide of lead. A filter of paper rather less tnan ^^u^ ^ ^ '^^^ ikaiAi and fbor iaciiee ia diameter was prepared and washed; th^, by fitting hito ono of the two necks or the tioiile a siphon with ec|oal legs, so as to resemble Oay-Lussac's apparatus Ant washing filters (except tfmt I used a contrivance to prevent the necessity of the airsappiied to the bottle from bubbling through the solution]^ I was enable<I to allow the filtratitm to go on with consider- able regularity for many hoars. The first portion of linuid which passed through gave a pale brown when testeil ; wlieu nine fluid ounces had passed through the effect was the same as nt first, and a portion (a) was reserved for iiilure com- parison. When forty fluid ouncen had passed through, the
• The cfTfctivc filter mcntioiicJ hy Dr. Clark i f oriiu I itT wc!l-washed «and, and has been in UM during twelve mouths witiiout any appareat diminution of power.
C2
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QO Rev. B. Broowin on ike DeUrmimUim qf
liquid, which was quite clear, gave ft much darker tint with the test than any which had previouslv been obtained In the experiment It gave a tint abont equal to that given with the unfiltered liquid when diluted with its own volume of walsrs while It (t. e. the last filtered portion) lequlred to be minted with twice its volume of water to produce the same tint as that given by the reserved filtered portUm (a). The liquid now passed through the filter very slowly; it was tested again» when eight more fluid ounces had passed through, with the same result as before, except that the tint was a trifle darker.
This experiment sufficiently shows that the efifect contem- plated does occur, and that it would be unsafe to trust to the action of a filter to separate oxide of lead fiioro water for an unlimited time.
VII. Eqnntions for the Deter mijiation of the Molimi of a Distm bcd Plcuiet h\j means of M. Hansen's MUred Tim* Bill the iiev. Baicfi BaoiiwiM*.
npHB theory of M. Hansen on Lunar and Planetary Per* ^ turbations, owing to the two times r and / which it con- tains, is attended with many difitculties, and is very perplexing. His results I think are in an advantagisous form ; but }ierhaps they might be obtained more easily by the equations given in this paper, which are referred to the plane of the orbit as if it were a fixed plane, because I have proved that so referred they are true. [See this Magazine for November 18^ and also the Cambridge Mathematical Journal, No. 24.] The equation
• — al +^co8(u~t) = 1 4-<?cosvco$u-i-esin9rsinu
is true for the disturbed orbit ; e, and tt having their known variable values depending ou the disturbing force. If and be the values of these quantities when the disiurbing force is made to vanish, then
f cosirsrQCos«Q+ ^ {cosw de^emBwdx)^ esimfsscQsia^Q-i- J* (sinx£/<:+tf cossrc/jr).
These values subsiiiutcd in the above equation give • Commttaifistsd by the Autiior.
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the Motion of a Dislwied Planet. SI
Let the constant quantities X and g be the same fiiuctions of a constant time x wliich u and / are of /; then putting the former in place of the hitter, we may put them under the sign of integration, changing t into t after the integrations ai c per- Ibrmed. This will cfauni^c the last equation int9
^ = 1 +1^00. (.-»o) - +/co. (A-.) de
But /^^^ = -/S^^'.
The coeiiicients of are put under the above form for
- hdt dtrss -cos
Substituting these Talues, we find
^ W ^si"'" ^ " ~ ''''' ^^"'^ ~
To abridge, let tbb be written
4=J^ + ^co.C— ) + P.
But ii^t be Uie progression of the apse* co§(»— itq) = cos (u — g/) =cos(u^6/^Tg)
— — ^1 ^
ne^eding higher powers of % U Therefore
~ = J^, {1 + ^o«»(« - 5/ - Wo) - €b^^sin(« - g< - Wo)} + P.
Terms similar to the above, containing t in their cocfiicients, will .iri«c ironi the development of P; and ^ must be so de- ternimcd as to tlrivc them out, which will be easily done. W e maj always neglect terms involving the higher powers of/.
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Rev. B. Bronwin m the Xktermination of
Let rj and v, be the iame fuacdons of the new time end the constants f,, -k^ Sq which r and ti are^ when there la no disturbing force^ of the time t and the constants h^€^9^ and %y Also let vBBVi+ft* We shall have
W e bhali not with M. Hansen find the log of and there- fore shall make ^ + ji. Sabstitiiting this valnet we shall easily find
-5 .
- sin (U| - + P.
"Whence p is of the order of the disturbing force, and it has the advantage of requiring only one integration. In virtue of the suppoM equation
fi^rfw, - ^1 or ^ 8=
we have
dt dt'^^^ d% d%^ ^ di'^ This valuer substituted in the known equatioii
gives
Of the four quantities ^„ e„ two are to be found In terms of the others, which will be arbitraries of the theory ; nnd the mode of determining them will be obvious after the
development is ejected.
Piiuini^ ^ for the latitude, / for the iiscliuation, ^ and ^ for tY)c longitude of the node on the plane of the orbit and on Uie iiic^ plane, we have
d = J* cos i d mil = sai i sin (u ^)
«ssln^(cos3sino — sindcosv}^ sin^cosdaBsinfoGos^Q+ ^ (cosfoosdd^ — slnfsin^i2^)i
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ike UoHen of a DidmM JVoMi. U
•iiii«iii3=i«iniosin^o+ ^ (posisin^iii + 8infC0«d<f3).
Substituting these valuesi and changipg v into Af «nd pot* ting it under uie sign iniegrationt we obtain
ain 4i ~ am /y bia — "^o) ^''^ ~ ^> * ^ * — cos (X — 3) siai d
But
km$ dy hmt dt
Tboie fnluaa being put in tfae above, it will become
• ^ • • • # a.\ . rcosidtdll . ,
8m^»aaifo8m(«-tdo) + J sm (x - d)
To abridge^ we may write this
sin <^ » Bin ^psin (o — ^q) + Q,
or ain ^ a sin ^ain (v + 7 /— d,^ — y/sintco6(v +7/— ^o) +
Here 7 ^ u the regression of the node^ and 7 is to be so de- termined aa to take away firom Q tbe terma having t in their
Coeilicients*
If in the equations
efai ^ » ain t sin (« — if sin ^ , ^vtfa
we change ^, u, f, and 3 into ^0 ^ ^> tjo + 8 u, 4- 8 /, and + ^ ^» ^ ^» &c. being the parts depending on the disturbing Mffcei and if we expand, tiwing account of tbe first power only of I ^, &&, we shall find equations of the form
= Ci^; + DSu.
From these we may correct the values of i niu! ^ or 6 by mtiaiia of the corrections of ^ and cliic to Uie disturbint^ force, and la doing so we may take account oi higher powers of I &c.
I tliii]k ilie devol(i])in<jnt cf the preceding c(juauuiis would be attended wiih niucli less difficulty and perplexity than the development of M. Hansen's. I have not noticed the reduc- tion to a fiaed plane, but must refer for that to the Number of this BIsgaxine for February where I have given equa- tions particularly adapted to the lunar theory, and leading to results expressed in terms of the true elllptie longitude.
•
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M Lieiit.«Col« Sabtne on mm I\d$tii in
I sec Mr, Cayley has amcMuiLd liis paper of November 1814'. If lie wQuid ameiKl it a little further, ii would not benmiss. He has now made p a prime number instead of any odd one ; S is made of tlie ^e^oild instead of the general form. In the ex- pression of or railicr (px^^ lie should have limd the trans-
formed fiinctioii «^ s not ^ a function of I* Moreovert
p
Some other amendments are greatly wanted. When r has a dulenninalc value, J should liave one also, since p a known function of d. And if we know what value to a-isiga to ar> we should have the value of 2/, which is the complete function. 1 have no room to enlarge, and as Mr. Cnyley has done no- thing which invalidates what I have done^ it is nnnecessarjr* Qttnthmdte Hall, Dee. 1^ 1845.
VIII. On some Points in the Meteorology of Bombay, JJy Lieut.-Cuiuncl Sabine, R,A,fFM.S,*
[With a Plate-l
IN a communication which I had the honour to make to the Sec- tion at the York meeting of the British Association, on the sub- ject of the meteorological observations made at Toronto in Canada In the yeais 1840 to 1842t, I noticed some of the advantages widch were likely to result to the science of meteorolog}', from the resolu- tion of the bsrometric prsssurs into ifo two constituents of aqueous and of pijieous pressure. It was shown that when the eonstituonts of the baromotric pressure at Toronto were thus di^f Ti'ja«5c'd from each other and preseutcfl separately, their annual and diurnal variations exhibited a verj striking and instructive accordance with the annual and diurnal variations of the temperature. The chanusteristie lha* tures of the several variations when projected in carves were seen to be the !^ame, consisting in all eases of a single progression, having ono ascending and one descending branch; the epochs of maxima and nMruma of the pressures beirj?,^ the same, or very nearly the samct with those of the maxima and nuiuiiui ui' temperature; and the correspondence in other respeets being such us to nianii'est the eatsteoce of a very intimate conneilon between the periodical varia* tions of the temperature^ and those of the elastic rorees of the air and vapour. The curve of gaieous pressure was inverse in respect to the other two; that is to say, as the temperature Increased the elastic force of the vapour inrrerv«< d also, but that of the air ilimi- ni^hed, and vice rersd ; and this was the case both in the annual and the fliurnal variations.
* Qoumunicatcd to the Mathemaiioii and Physioil Section of Die llritisb Asto- daiiOB in the AdrancemcQt of Science, at the Cainbridge Meeting, 1845. t aes FUL Msg., voLnvi p.M.
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BOMBAY 1843. J)twrnal t 'uriaiions , Oaaeow J*ns>f,ftLre , Tension, of Vapour
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the Metem ologj of Bombay,
25
Saek beisg tke facts, I endeavoured to show, in the case of the (linrnnl varmttori^. that the com??tpon<!f nre of the phfenomena of the tempt ratuK ;ui(l L'a^foiis pre^ure luigiiL bi i xp)ai?ied, in accord- ance Willi principles wiiicli had been long and univi-rsally admitted in the interpretation of other meteorological phaeoomeua, by the soppofitioiifly — of an exleoiioii in helglit and conaeqiieiii overrowiii tbe ugber r^^tons of the atmosphere of the column of air over the place of observation, during the hours of the day when the tarfluse of the earth was gaining heat by radiation, — nru! of n ootitmofion of the column during the hours of fliniinisiiiuu' ti mix riitun , and conse* quent reception of the overflow i'roni other portions of the atmo* ■Inhere) which in their tuiu liad become iieated and elongated.
Acoordiiig to thU exptanatioii there should exbt, daring the boon of the day wbeo the temperature b tiiefe88iiw,-*1flt, an atwndSbM current of air at the place of observation, of whieli the strcngtih should be measured by the amount of tlie increments of triTijiontture corresponding to given intervals of time; and 2nd. a hUerul mjltu: of air al Um hirer jxirts of the oh/nm, of pro]>ortionate velocity, con- stituting a diurnuL varuUion in Lhcfurce of the wiiid at tUe place of obaenriuioii, which should also comspond with the variations of the tenpeiatnie in the epochs of its maximum and nunimum» and inter* mediate graifaitio& of strength. Hie anemometrlcal observations at Toronto were shown to be in agreement with the view which had been then taken, confirming the existence of n ditirnal variation in tlie i'uree of the wind, corresponding in all respects with the varia- tion of the temperature.
Admitting the exphmation thus offered to be satlsibolory in re- gard to the diumd variationsi it was obvious that the correspond- ence of the annual variations of the tempefatute and pressures might receive an analogous explanation.
A comparison of the results of the observations at Toronto with those of the observations of M. Kreil at Prague in Bohemia, (pub- lished in the Mar/, unci Met, JJeob, zu Prag^ and in the Jalirfmrh fur Prag. 1843,) showed that the characteristic features of the pc- rioifioal variations aft Toronto were not peeoUar to that locality, but ndght rather be considered as belonging to stations situated in the temperate zone and in the interior of a continent The annuttl and diurnal variations at Prague were also single jM ogression's and the same enrrespondeiice was ol)servable between the variations of the temperature and of the gaseous pre^ure.
The publication of the volume of magnetical and meteorological observations made at Greenwich in 18^ which took place shortly after the meeting of the Association at Yorfc^ enabled me to add a postscript to the printed statement of my communication in the an- nual volume of the Association Reports, showing the correspond- enr-f f>f results at (Jrecnwich with tlie relation-^ which had hecn fo iii'l t > < \i t in the periodical march of the pbajnouiena at Toronto and at Trugue.
Fkott the eeoeurrence of these three statkMM, it was obvious that a considefable insight bad been obtained Into the lawa wMeh regulate
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36
Lieut.*CoL Sabine on same Points in
flm periodical varUitioM in the temperate soeei end into the te-
quencn of natural causes and effects, in accordance with wliich the annual and ditininl Huctuatioiia of the elastie forr i < of air and vapour at tlu' Hurlkce ol tlip i;arth depend on the variaiioii- nf temperature : and liuiu these prtuuses it was inferred, that the noiiiud state of the diurnal variations of tho pretMures of the air aud vapour aud of tlie Ibfve of tlie wliidi In tlie tempenito icme, might be regarded M tint of a eiBgle progfMMi with ooe BMuunram and Me MinfMoiiii tho epoebs of which sheuld neaily eoiaeiile with tbeie of the manmn awl miBimiiiii of temperature*.
That exeeptions should be found to thi^ state of thinjrs in par- ticular localities in the temperate aoiie wee far tmn being impco-
^ tteia this conunonicatioii wm read at Cambri^ I hevt notknA ttom ML Oove'e tapj oi a paper read to the Academy of Berlin, eatiUed ' Ueber die perk>-
Aendeningrn dcs Drnckea der Atmosphare im Innern dor Coiitiiifnte,' in wiuch the remarkable facts are stated, that at Catherinenbomrg and Nertcbin&k (on the MB nt Mvenl yttn), and at Baraaool (fa the yMia IMi aad 1840), the
mean diurnal barometric curve itself exhibits hnt one niiLximum aorl one mini- mum in the twenty-four hours ; the niavimum cuiucidiug nearly with the coldest, aud the miuimum with the holtebt huurs of the day. At these statiousi therefore, and intbejeare referred to, the IbvaiOOB mailliium disappeared and the barome- tric carve n':<-iinil,ntcd in ehninr'rr To t^f curre of tlie dry air in other places in the temperate Kone. Thes>e btaiiuus arc bituated far in die ititeriorof the greatest extent of dry land on the suiface q( our gh^, and at a very gmil diitaace mm aa ( A j i.Luse of water, frotti whence yapeor am be tupplied. The diminish^ pr^ora of the dry air produced liy the ascending current and overflow the temperature of the day increases, is not therefore conipeusated by an increased elasticity of ▼aponr, and the curve of the dinraal Taritthni of tlie BiieBUlf eppnetaalaa te the fonn assumed when the elasticities of the vapour nt the several hours of oh- servation arc iiJihtracted. Tiiis assimilation in character of the barometric and (inferred) gaseous curves, which iss thus found to take place in cases where, from aalnnl caniea, the influenee of the vapour is greatly lessened, appein a conftr- matiort of the nro]triety of ^^rp^.ratiiig the eftccts of the dertis nCWi ef the diy air and vapour ui their action on the harome^.
If. Dove considers that the single progresifam of the dlmaal baroBUtric aorvfi which takes place at the three Asiatic stations referred to in this note, is characta** istic of a true continental climate. It is, without doubt, charartcristic of an ex- treme climate, and as such is higlily instructive. There appear rea&ou to doubt ffteUnr aa eatiwM dfanate of ewreapondiag ulifaetw mk at eH k tha teaiiye* fate latitudes of the eonlinent of Anie-ir n.
If, however, we examine the record of the obscrvatioQa made hourly in the ^*ear at Catherinenbourg, Bamaoul and Nertdiinak, in the ' Annuaire Magnctiaue etH^orolonque de Russie,'we find that at Cathenaenbooig in that year the biu romcter exhibits a double progression, htit that the morning TunviTnuni, which oe- curti at the observation hour of 8*^ 22*" ajm., exceeda the aatecedeut miiuinuu only by a quantity leu than <HNIS hi. At Btraaoal them li alto a doiiUe progreerion in the barometric mean in that year, the morning maxiiuum heing still small, and taking place hetween the o^-it' tion hours of O** T) I"' and 1(1'^ r> t"' \ ■^f. At Ncr- tchinsk also there is a mormug uiaxituum occurring at the ohicr\auuu iiuurof i^^ IT"* a.11. la ell the tiiree OHes the double {nrogression shown by Um lawietei disappears wholly in the cur\i: of the dry air, which curve evhibits at these three stations, as well aa at Toronto, i'rague and Greenwich, but oue maximum and one minimum in the twenty-four hours. At the three stations of extreme dryness cited by M. Dove, thcrefora tlxe vapour was still sufHdent to impart, in the year 1842 at least, a douMe progre^^i'M; ta tlic diurnal variation of the liarometer; hut the hour of the morning maximum was earlier tiiau where the increase of vapoiir, as
the 417 ednaesa, if grwtar.
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bable ; it could not be expected tbat the influence of temperature should always ho so Himplc and direct as they appeared to be at To- ronUi; and a niorr r unplex aspeet of the pluenomrna niiglu parti- cularly be looked tor, wiiere a juxtaptJhitiou sliould exist of columns of air rii&ting on surfaces ditierctitly affected by heat (as those of land and t«i^ and pOMaesin^ dilbiaat rataioing aod ladlaliQg pro- pertiea. In auch localitiaa wUhm Ae trapieSf Hia well-known regular occurrence of land and sea breeies for many months of the year made it obvious that a double progression in the diurnal variation of the forcr of the wind must exist, and rendered it highly probable that a (l iiiMe progression of the gaseous pressure would also be fouud. It was therefore with great pleasure ikiL I received, through the kiadnaw of Dr. Buiat, a copy of the aaantUy abatraeta of the tiro-hourly meteorological obearvatioofl, made under that gentle- man's tupcrtntendance at the observatory at Bombay in the year 181-3; accompanied by a copy of his meteorological report for that year, po*s«e'*<;!n<^ a prirtirnlar value, in the full account which it gives of I ill pt riodical variations of the wind, and in the means which it thereby affords of explaining the diurnal variation of the gaseous presBore. This pressure preiente at Bombay an aspect at first sight atofa complex than at the thraa above-named itatiQns in the tampe> rate aone^but I believe it to be equallv tiaoeable to variations of the temperaturBi and to furnish a probable type of the variations at in- tertropical fltationa aimUarly oircunwtanced in regard to the vioini^ of the sea.
The observatory at Uombay is siluatt d on the island of Cuiubahi in N» lat. IS° 5^' and £. long. 72° 50' at an elevation of thirty 'five fact above the levd of the tea. In the copy of the obeervationa ra> Qcived from Dr. Buist, the monthly alMtracta are given lepantely for each month, of the standard thermometer, — of the wet tbermo- mt'fj'T, and of its depression below the dry, — and of tlir bnrometer, la Table I. I have brought in one view the therujonjetrical and baro- metrical means at every second hour, and the mean tension of the vapour and mean gaoeouii pressure at the bame hour^. The tension of the vapoiur at the flcvcral obiervation houia haa been computed from the fncmft^ meanM, at the same hoursi of the wet thermometer aod of ita depreaiion below the dry thermometeTi. The valuea arc con?5equrntly somewhat less than they would have been, bad the teu-
ti i)een computed from each individual observatioii of tlip wet atiil dry theriiiouRters, and had the mean of the teu&it>ii3 thus ob- uiiued been tui^eu a^ tiit: value corresponding to the hour. The dif- ference ia however an email, that for the nreseot purpose it may be regarded aa quite ittsignifioRot. It would not amount in a mngle instance to the hundredth part of an inch; and aa in ever^ ln»taooe the difference would be in the same direction, the relative values, which are those witii which we are at present concerned, would be scarcely sensibly aflecled. 'I'iu' presisures of the dry air (or tiur tra- scouii pretu»urii») are iibtaiued by deducting the tension of the vapour from the whole barometric prcMare,
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23
LieuU-Coi. Sabine oh some Joints in
Tablk I.
Bombay, l&J-S. — Mean TeiniH r;i(urr», Mean Barometric Pressurct IVIeun Tension of Vapour, and Aiuau Gaseous Pressure at everj second hour.
|
Bovn of Mcau Bumbav TbMi A^tmnomiril |
Itwimotff |
|||
|
in. |
in. |
io. |
||
|
18 |
29-805 |
(h750 |
||
|
20 |
7w6 |
29*840 |
0-76o |
l'l>074 |
|
22 |
81-8 |
29-852 |
0-771 |
2»()S1 |
|
0 |
29-817 |
0*7$8 |
29-049 |
|
|
S |
84*1 |
0^ |
||
|
4 |
8no |
2n7r)5 |
0-80() |
iM5 |
|
6 |
82-3 |
0-802 |
28-972 |
|
|
8 |
81-2 |
0-801 |
29*005 |
|
|
10 |
80-3 |
29-825 |
0-780 |
29045 |
|
12 |
79-8 |
29-8()9 |
0-775 |
21)034 |
|
14 |
79-4 |
29-786 |
0/66 |
29020 |
|
16 |
n-9 |
»«778 |
0-761 |
9M)17 |
|
Mean of the year ... |
8M |
29-802 |
0-780 |
29-022 |
The sun is vertical at ]>om1iav twice in the year, viz. in the middle of May and towards the end of July. The rainy season ts in about the commencement of June (in IS^S on the 2nd oi JuneJ, and ter- minates in August, but with heavy showers of no long duration con- tinuing into S^tember. Daring the rainy MMnit >^ ^ month of May whidh imnedialely jirecedes it, the skf le most commonly covered with clouds, by which the heating of the earth by day, and its cooling at night by radiation, are impeded, and the range of the diurnal variation of the temperature is greatly h's^encd in compari- son with what takes place at other times in tlie year. The strength of the land and the sea breezes in those months is also eoni]i aratively feeble, and on many days the alternation of ianci and ^^ea breeze is wholly wanting. During the months of November, December, Ja« noary and Febraaiy, the Snmal range of the temoeraliire ta mora tlun twice aa great as in the rainy season, and the land and sea hreeaea l^revail with the greatest regularity and force.
In addition to the monthly tables, we may therefore ad\'antage- ously collect in one view, for ]>nrp(><5es of contrast, the monns* of the months of May, June, July aud Augu^^t, vi9 fin* season when the sky is generally elomlt — and of the monUio ol November, December, January and i ebruury, the season of opposite character, whea the range of the diurnal temperature is greatest, and the land and sea breeses alternate regularly, and blow with considerable strength. ThcM seasons are contrasted in Table II.
If we direct our attention to the diurnal Variations, commencing with those of the temperature, we find them exhibiting a single pro- gression, hfwinf:^ a tuinimum at 18^ and a maximum at 2'^; the ave- rage diifcreuce between the temperature at 18^ and 2^ being 7°*77
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the Meieorolc^ of Bombaif^ S9
in tbe clear season, 3^*7 1 in tbe clouded season, and 5^*7 on the mean
of the whole year.
When however we direct our attention to the gaseous pressure, we perceive, very distinctly marked, the characters of a double progres- sion, Imving one maximum at 10^ and another at 2'^^ ; one mtnimum at 1:" and another at 16**. The double progression is exliibitt (1 both in the clouded and in the clear seasons, with a slight (iiritience only in the hours of maxima ; the principal maximum in the cloudy aeason being at 20^ instead of 22^ and the inferior maximum in the clear season being at 12^ instead of |(^. The range of the diurnal ▼ariation, like that of the temperature, is n)f)re than twice as great in the elear as in the clouded season, mnrkinj^ distinetly the connexion subsisting bet\\ ecu the phienomeua of the temperature and of the gaseous pressure.
Table II.
Bombay, 184-3. — Comparison of the Temperature and of the Ga- seous Pressure in the months of May, June, July and August, when the sky is usually covered with clouds; and in November, December, January and February, when the sky is usually c]ear»
|
Hoctra of Mom Time at BonibAjr. AfllnMMMnie*! aedumiiif. |
'I'l-iiilierature. |
|||
|
November, December, 1 JiBiniy aad Febnitty. |
May, June, Jul; ■Dd Aiigual. |
November, December, Jaanaij Mid Vebniaiy. |
Majr, June, Jalgr aod Angint* |
|
|
18 20 22 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 18 |
74- 1 75- 3 78*1 80- 8 81- 9 8!'7 7d'6 78*4 76- 9 76-2 757 74-9 |
831 84- 3 851 85*6 85- 4 84*3 88*4 830 82*7 82*8 82*2 |
in. 29-368 29-391 29-353 29230 29- 10.") 29- 199 29-248 29-308 29-318 29*285 29*285 |
in. 28789 28Sf)6 28-798 28-782 28-746 28-740 98754 28H(H) 2877ri 28-754 28*753 |
|
& •••••«•••»«• |
778 |
83-7 |
29-298 |
28-763 |
Tf we now turn our attention to the pluenoniena of tlie direction aiul force of the wind, we tind by Dr. Buist's report, that for 200 days m the year tlu re is a regular alternation of land and sea breezes. The land breeze springs up usually about 10^, or between 10^ and 14^, blows strongest and freshest towards daybreak, and gradually declines until a£)ut 22^ at which time t1)e direction of the aeriid currents changes, and there is generally a lull of an hour or an hour nnfl a halfs duration. Tlie sea breeze then sets in, the ripple on tiie surface of the water indicating its commencement being hrst ob- served close in shore, and extending itiielf gradually out to sea. The sea breeze is freshest from 2^ to 4**, and progressively declines in the emlog hours.
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Lieut««Gol, Sobiae on gome FoinU in
The divnial ?ari«tioii in iiie force of the wiDd during thew fOO days if therefore obviously a doable progreMion, haTing two naiima end two minima ( one maximum at or near the hottest, and the other at or near the coldest hour of the day, — being the hours when the diffemncr of tcmprratiim is jjrrntrst hetwrrn thr colurnrrM of air whicli rest respectively of! thf^urraccs of land and sea; and two minima coincidiiig with th«; luMirs, wht ii {hi- surface temperature over the land and over the sea approaches ntaiiy to an Lijuality.
In the renuuDing portion of the year the diurnal range of the tem- jieretafe !■ mott frequently ineoffieient to prodnoe tMt eltematioD in the diieoUon of the wind, which prevaile mrinterrnptodly during the falser portion. There appears however to ha?e been only one month, viz. July, in the year 1843, in which there were not some days in which the alternation of land and sea breezes was? percep- tihlp. The causes which produce the alternation are not therefore ^vh()lly inoperative, though thtj etiects are coniparativnly feeble during tile clouded weatliet- which accouipani^ the south-wee«t uiunsuun *.
If we now view together the diurnal TaiMlicnu of the wind and gaieouB prewurOf as shown in Plate I., we find a minimnm of piee- sure coinciding with the greatest strength of the sea breeie; a second minimum of pressure coindding with the greatest streogtli of the land brrr/r ; and a maximum of prcjjsurc at oacli of the pe- riods when a clumge takes place in the direction of the aerial cur- rents ; or, otherwise stated, we find a decrease of j)re.s8ure coincident with tiie increai^ii of strength both of the land and »t'a breezei^, and an increase of pressure coincident with their decline in strength.
The faets thin stated appear to me to admit of the following ex- planation : — the diminution of pressure which precedes the mini- mum at 4^ is occasioned by the rarefaction and ascent of the co- lumn during tlie heat of the day, and its consequent overflow in the higher region?? of the atmosphere, which is but partially eonnter- balaiiced in th«^ forenoon by the indux of the sen lireeze at the lower part of the column. Shortly after the hottisi huur is jtassed, the overflow above and the supply below become equal in amount, and the dimiouttoo of pressure cesses. As the temperature fails to- wards eveaingt the eolamn progressively contraokst wlien the inflnit from the sea breeze more than countertmlanoes the OTorflow, and the pressure again inenttes until a temponuy equilibrium Is re- stored, when the sea breeze ceases and the pressure is stationary.
A?5 the night advance?, the air over tl)e land becomes colder than over the sen : the lengtli of the column o\ er the land contrncts, and the air in its lower part becomes denser than in that over tlie sea : an interchiuige then commences of an opposite character to that which prevailed during the day* The outward flow is now from the lower part of the column, or from the land towards the sea,
* Tliftre are no dala in Dr. Buist's report from which the diurnal variation in the force of the wind may be judged of in the days during the south-west nion- MOB, when no alternation takes place in its dirsotloe. It wseld iseai pMbtM* that on svtch days the variation should he a sirrs^le progntriSBf WSthsU teWMPds dqrbreak, and stroD((ett about ths hottest hour ol the day.
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«ainf tfM pmrne toduDbrfili ow IlielMid; it aoolfaioM to do M lam fowndfl d>ybwk» wImd iIm atraogth of the land braeie ib pnlMt» bMMo liie air over the huid ia then coldest in compariaon with tbat over the sea« As the sun gains in altitude and tlio tempe- rattirr of the day advances, the land heats rnpidly; tlie density of the air over the hind and t^ca returns tuwanls an e(juality ; the land breeze <ieeliiies in strength, and the drain from the lower part of the cuiuitin ceaiies to counterbalance the overflow which the land column ii aft tlie same time receiving in the higher regions ; the pressure eops^quentlj hafing attained aaeeond minlBntm at or near tne boor of greafteat dn^roportion of tamiieraftafe, acain Inereases until the tempetntare and beigbt of the column over the aea and land are the same, and the pressure again becomes stationary. But now the rarefaction of the column over the land continuing, its iner»'fi«» in height above the less heated column with whicli it is in juxtaposi- tion, and its consequent overHt>w, occiuiion Uic pressure to decrease until the tuiinuium at 4> u'clock is reached.
We Imvo tima tlMtofore at Bombay a ioMe progrmmam if At dhmmt wariatkmof Hie gateomprmitm the prioeipal mininuim oo* cnriinK at 4 o'clock in the aftemooo, occaaioned by an overflow from the coumn in tbo higher r( gions of the atmoapbere; and the second minimum occurring at 1 8^, occasioned by an efflux from the lower part of the column. The fir^t nnTiimum is similar to that which has lieen shown to take place oi i Mi i nin. PrRcr'ie and Greenwieh, an«l is similarly explained: theset uml uuiiiaiiiiii, whieh (l()(!s not takt; |»lace at the three above-naiu^d btations, is owing to the juxtaposition of
the oolnmna of air orer the tea and land, which difl^ in tempera- tare, and therefore in density and halght» in ocmsequetiee of their re»ting respecttYelj on auHae^ which are dificrently afl^ted by beat* Plate I. showa the earvo of the gaaeoaa prenNire» and the curve
of the elajstie force of the vapour; and between them is placed a dia- gram illustrating the hours of prevalmrr and of the greatest strength of the land and sea hreezj^s. At Toronto and at Greenwich ihi; di- urnal curvid of the vapour is a single progression, having its maxi- mum at or near the hottest hour of the day^ and its minimum at or Mir the eoMcat boar* Wo peroeiTa in the Hate whieh repreaenta tiM pWinoBiena at Bombay, the modifloation whieh takes plaoe la oawsequeooe of the aopply of vapour brought in by the sea breeae COntiBiiiag until a late hour in the eveningt and prolonging the p^ rif>d during which the tension is at or near its maximum. The mi- nimum ooiMin aa uaaal at or xiear the hour of the eoldeit tempera* ture«
if, then, the explanation which I have offered to the Section, of the phv.-ieal causes whieh profltiee the diurnal variation of the gaseous pn-isure at lioiubay, t unect, the diurnal variatiou of tho barome- tric prc^urc occurring there is also explained, since it i:j i«iinply the eorobioatioa of tht two a&Mlie ibreea of the air and of the vapoar*
The aolotlon of the problem of the dtnmal variation of the baro- BMlar ia therafoie obtained by the resolution of the barometric prea*
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LieuL'Cui. Subiiie ofi some Points in
siiro into its constituent pressures of vapour and air ; since the phy- siff?! rmi*< sof the diurnal variation of the component pressures have been j < l otively traced to Lht; variations of temperature prodiu od in tiie Lvvcuty-four hour:} by the earth's revulutiua on iti» axi^, and to the different properties pottened by the material bodies at the vax^ fiuse of the globe in respect to the reception, conveyance, and fadia- tion of heat.
Annual variation. — We now procacil to the anuuui variationg, which are shown in the subjoined table.
Table III.
1849.
Temper a-
Vapour
OMeow
January .. February .. Mifch
Ana
Juue
jQl7
August .... September.. Oetober . November December..
777
79- 7 84-2
8.") a
85 4 821 81 3 811
80- 5 76-6
0578
0-710 0-853 0-921 0935 0-896 0-859 0-859 0*819 0-675 0-69^
29240 29- 128 28'901 28-743 28-718 28737 28SG9
28- 920
29- 21.1 S9-368
29-930 29-894 29-838 29814 29n/M 29 tjj^ 29 633 29-728 29-779 99-845 l>r> 888 29 960
fonder licuM smtor (•«-}<
Tempera- ture.
^7 71 74 76 78 80 85 84 84 78 fi7 67
-%7 -3-4 -1-4 431 +4-8 +4-3 -HlO +0-1 00 -f-M -0-6 -4-5
Vapottr PrcMurc.
-0202 -0-132 -0070 +0073 +0-141 +0-156 +0-116 + 0 079
+0079 +0089
-OKI.') -0-188
+0-329 +0-223 +0-105 -0-062 -0-280 -0-305 -0-286 -0-164 -0-103 +0003 + 01 1)0
+o-a45
811
0780
99-808
76
We here peraeive that the leading featureaof the phsenomena aio
clrnrly analogous to those which have hecn seen to j)rt'St»nt them- selves at Toronto, Prairnp and Greeiiu ich ; viz. a correspondence of the maximum of vapour prt'ssure aiid midimum of gaseous^ pres- sure with the maxiiuuiu of tempt^rature, — and of the minimuui of ▼apoar pKMore and maiimum of gaseons pramie widi the mini* mum of tem|»ei«tare; and a progremtve mansh of the three ▼ariai* tiont from the minimum to the maximum, and back to the minhnum ncrrtin. The epochs, or turning-points of the respective pha»nomfna, are not in every I'^e strictly iilentieal ; but their conneiuoa, which is tlie subject iniuu-tiiatcly before u**, is most obvious.
We itave thus a further illui^tratiuu of the universality of the prin- otpte of the dependence of the regohir periodical variationiy annoal «a weU as diornal, of the pfeHwes of tne dry air and of the vafioiuv on those of the tempetatnre*.
fai ilw lie|ilcs ud in the tenpenfte wne As licst of twmnef iNtidsoei lod
accompanies a low gaseous pressure, and the cold of winter a high gaseous pres- sure. Wheo we consider how large a portion of the northern hcniisphcre is occu- oied by land, wliicU bcconiing greatly heated in summer rarefies tlie snpcrincuiu- Dcnt atnioqihere, causing it to overtop the adjacent less heated masses, and Ul efoiiow Umib, ire dwda be l0d to npQGl tilii ia
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the Meteorologi^ of Bombay, 9$
Tlie humidity exhibits a1<?n a <i!ngle progression ; but nifiv perhi^^ be ratht?r characterized ixa evidencing a very dry season ironi No- vember to February, and a very humid one from June to Septem-
ttoi to tiie Mfih at Hhs {vnt eiMliiMBtiy Am gtMoni pmnro ihwiW An
cre'L^ed hi summer, and that the curve of annual variation should become the con- verge of what it is in the lower Imtitudes. it appetirs from the meteorological ob- •ervatlona made in 1843 by Messrs. Orewe and Cole, and presented to the British Asaod^on at the Itak meeting by Dr. Lee, that aoeh is the cMe at AHea, Mar thf north cape of Europe. Tlie barometer and themiom^^ffr were ohscrvofl tlim* liiueii a day, from October 1842 to Deoeiober 1843 iuciu&ive. The hours of ob- aervation mn 9 a.m., 3 p.m. and 9 rM, No hygrometrie ohsmitioBt wero made, but we are ablr t i inf. r thf apjTrn.vimatc tension of t'lr vapour from the record of the thennometer. The quarterly means of the barometer and thermo- Mliria IM an aa falfamt; the Mnmwter bcii% vadkieed to the tetel of the aeOf asiL naoecntt ipr gwiiij
Barometer. Tbermometer.
in. o
December, .T:iniiarr, Febmary 29*375 24 F.
March, Apni, May ^ 29 948 277
Jiuie» July, Anguat 29*903 52*4
S^piniber, Oetohar* Nonmber ... 29*718 34-2
MMb of the year 29-786 844
Atnunisg the humidity in each quarter of the year to be 75, or the vapour to ~ i caae three^fourths of that reqofaed t» aaUnattot at the wipeetifc ten- > «a abonld have the r '
Deeentbar, Jaimary, Febraaiy 29457
March, April, May 29*804
June, July; August 29 (11
September, October, November, December ... 29 -5 GO
29*561
!t appears therefore tint in the six summer months the mrnn hnrometric j^rr-^snrc exceeded that of the winter months by 0*381 inch; and the mean gaaeotut prea- aanof mwMrtxaeeded that <tf whiter by about 9*3 iiieh. Ai in thit eaie Ibe cnrve of the gaseous pressure, as >vcll as that of the aqueous vapour, accords in character with the curve of temperature, i.p. riT^'nils with nsrondinir temperature, and descends with descending temperature, — the btiruiueuii: uiiaual iunge is naaler tfuui tiM yaiaoM anmHil nmge, which is contrary to what takes place in Uke temperate and equatorial zones. It i- nnt iTuprobable that in the Antarctic Obde the phanomenon which we Itavc just uuticcd as taking place in the Arctic €Sicle,vfat.fheinraiiierIiicreaaeof the gaseous pressnre, — may not be found in the saiiio (!i L'; i t'. if at all ; for the two hemispheres present a remarkable contrast in their respective imiportions of sea and land, and the rarefaction of the atmosphere ever tibe middle latitudes of the southern hemisphere during its smnmar ranat be greatly less than in the same latitudes of the northern hemisphere in the corre- sponrling season. The barometrical observations made by Sir James Ross in ikummer in the Antarctic Circle accord with this inference ; since after correcting them for the shortening of tbeoohnntt of raerenry by the increaaed fofooef gvatflty in the high latittulc?. and abstracting the ?mnll frri>inii of \'apour r^orresponding to the temperature, the mean gaseotis pr^ure deduced from them, though nearly equal to titt aoean gaseous prewuw of the year at Bearibajr» doea not eieeed It; whereas at Alien it is only in the winter nionths that the gaseous pressnre descends so low at to ayproxiBkate to (ha siual nean gaaaooe iwraaBure <^ the tropical re* gions.
It is much to be desired that the zealous ckmerren at Alten should obaaiva the
Fkii. Mag. a 8. VoL Now 184« Jan. 1846* D
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S4 LieuU'Col. Sabine on some Points in
ber, the latter season being that of the rains. The avera^i^e degree of InjniifHtv in fho rear i?; very sliirhtlv lower than cither '.it Toronto or at (f rc'cnwich, but isstiil cios«4y aj>p< oaching to a valui: LXpie!»^iiig the pre&eucu oi' tbre^fourtbs of the quantity ot vapour required i'or saturatioiu
TIm iBQMi gatooiM pnMofB in 1648» dtflf^d from tiM twi^^Miriy
observations, appears to ha^e been (29iHS -I- Oi3$St Mi index cor- re> ti Ml which Dr. Duist gives as that of the barometer with wlitch the observations were made =) 29*01-8 English inolies : or, mea- sured by tiio lieight of a mercurial column in the liUitiuie of 45% 28*988. The height above the sea is thirty-hve tcct, and the latitude 19° N.
The mem lieigbl of Ihe bonMuotor In the yoar lR4d» dorMI fiwn
obaeryations at every second hour, appears to have been (tt'flOS + (y025=) 29*828, or, with the correction up jelled for gravity, 29'768, the elevation being thirty-five feet above th*- fen. This is less than what is generalljr received as the averajrc lu itrlit of the barometer in the »ame latitude. From the careful comparison de* scribed in Dr. Bulst's report of the iteiidard barometer wilik ie» venl other befoiBeten» thM aeems great reaaoB lo beUeft that the mean hekht ihovn 1^ it Most be a veiy near approiinialioii at least to the trao jnau atawMfiberio pware in the year IMS at Bombay.
The mean liciglit of the barometer in the four clouded months of May, June, July and August, is ^9'^>67; and in the four clear montli of November, December, January and February, 29*921. The mean vapour preswiie In the aaine aeaaooe ie raipeetively 0*904 and OGSS, and the gaseous preiture eomequently 2S*768 end 29r99Sm There is therefore between the two sca&ons a difference of 0*535 in* of gaseoUi» pn'S";un*, and of S'^'Bt of t<'in|v^mtnro ; tlir- low<'st prr^- SUre CorreS|Hiiiiliiig to thn hi'^'lirst Icihih i :ihin\ and rtrc i-( It we may allow ourselves to make a rough pro|K>rtion drawn from a single case, wc may estimate a decrement of 0*1 in. of pressure to an increment of 1" F. The highest temperatuie and h>west ptesMue ere aooompanied for aeaily the whole of the period bj the aonlhem monsoon ; tiie lowest temperature and ihe highflift pieMin eie ee- conipaniorl by the northern monsoon.
Tli<' curves of tho annun! variation of the gaseous, barometric, ami va|iour pret»sute», which are represented in Plate 1., show how mneh of the influence prodoead on tiie gaseous pressure, by the aU temalion of the overflow in the high ngiena of the mmpheie ea either side of the equator beeomes heated in its tum» is maakcd In the liaromctric curve by the combination in the latter of the vaponr prnwar^ tlie variaiioaa of wiuoh laJw place Ihronghont the yaer
wet thermometer it the srae tim« ws ^ buometer; the register would also be renderctl much more complete by ihe ftdditkm of another obMrvation-hottr« sboat
6 A.M., which might not j>crhnf»«i inconvenient. Tlio fttmosphmc pressiim and the tension u£ va|iour at or ucar tlic coldeti hour of tUe lwenty>four, are iiuportattt
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the Meteorology of Bombay,
35
in tke oppoilla dirsotion to liKMt of the gmom praatnre. From this catisc the range of tli<» barometric curve during the year is oolj 0*327 inch, whilst that of tli( LTf^-^f^'^'i" pressure is 0*650 iiieh.
Tlie analogy oF the annual and diurual variations, considered in respect to the explanation which has been atteiupteii of the latter, ht too cMom to be dwelt iipoa« The deereaaed eascous pressure In the liol leflfloa Is occaslonea hj the iwelketlon of the air over the land whilst the sun is in the northern eigni, and its oonsequent ovei^ How in the higher regions, producing a return current in the lower strata; and the incraased prpsdur(^ in the eolf! smson is orrasioned by the cooling and condensation of tlie air, wliilst the »uii i> on the south side of the equiuooUal, auU its cou^queut receptiuii oi the
wrerfow in the upper strata from the regions whioh am then mora powerfnUy wanned, and whieh Is but partially counteraeted by the owMite current in the lower strata.
In concluding this communication, I ix g respectfully to submit to the consideration of the eminent mrtenrologists hert' present, flnit it is very important towards the progress of this science, that the pro- priety (in :»uch discussions as the present) of separatiug the effect of the two ehwtle Ibraee wUeh ara eoniUerad to unite In fiMrmtng the bannnetric pressnre, should be speedily admitted or disproved. The very reflrarhsble fael neently brooght to our notioe by Sir James Rofs, as one of the results of his memorable voyage, that the mean height of the barometer is full an inch less in the latitude of 75 S. tlian ill liie tropics, aud that it diminishes progressively from tite tropics to the hi^h latitudes} presi>t:s the consideration of this point upon our notioe; for It is either exphuned wholly or in greater pert by the dintautksn of the vapour constitaent in the Idgher lati- tudes, which (Sminntlon appears neaiiy to eorrespoud throughout to the decrease of barometric pressure obser^'ed by Sir James H059; or it is a fact unexplained, and I believe hitherto unattempted to be explained, on any other hypothesis, and of 80 startling a character as to cail lor miuiediate attention.
If, by deducting th^ teQsk>n of the vapour firora the bamraelrio pntMiifb we do indeed obtain n true neaaura of Che presaura of the geinnwi portion of the atmosphere, the variations of the? mean annual gaseous pressure, which will thus be obtained in ditferent parts of the globe, — and the differences of pressure in different seasons at individual statioik», — may be exj)ected to throw a much eh arer light than we have hitherto possessed on those great aerial currents, which ewe their origin to variaiiona of temperalnra proeeeding partly front the diflhrant anglei of Inellnation oi whieh the eon's rays ara ra> < I ivrd, and partly from the nature aud oevflgmlloo of tlM Baterial bodies at the surface of the earth : and a field of research appears to hp thu«» opened by which our knowledge of both the persistent aud tiii^ pci HKitcal disturbaaoes of the equiUbrium of the atmoaphere may be greatly extended.
D9
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[ 36 1
IX. On iome N€m SpeeUi if Ankmd CkmerHiam* Bjf Thomas Taylos, Smgeom,
To Ricfutrd Tayhr^ Esq,
Dear Sir,
A S the Catalogue of the Calculi belonging to the Roynl CoHcn^c of Surgeons hns now been published some months, and iliere consequently remains no jiuther necessity foi' silenccj i purpose in the foUowinL;; paper to redeem the promise I formerly made, of describing some of the more re- niorkabU' ot tlie concretions which have been discover d du- ring the examination of that very Inrge collection; and also to detail the experimental pruuis un which the assertions as to ilieir conjpo&iUon were founded in the short notice which you did me tlie favour of inserting in lliis Journal in May 1844..
I do this the mo'rc w illi^^ly, it was coii^iikicd advisable to omit ilie details ui ilit: iuialyses in the Catalogue. Moie- over, the Catalogue having but a limited circulation, many of the new ikcu that have been elicited would not otherwise be generally known. I shallf boweYer, confine myself in tiiU paper to the notice cnlf of such concretions as are entirelj new, or whose composition has been either impeHectly or in* correctly described. For the historical account of the sucoes- ave steps by which our present knowledge of these bodies has been obtained, and ibr the description of the more common species of calcalit I must refer to the Catalogue itself*
Urinaty Calculus Jrom the Igtiatutf cmmstitig of Urate of
Foiass.
Small and unimportant qoantities of arate of potass may occasionally be detected in human urinaiy calculi, but no in- stance of tnis salt constituting an entire calculus ii as hitherto been described* There are three specimens of this description in the Colte^ collections which resemble each other in every fespectsafe m size. Two of them were described in the MS. Catalogue of Sir Hans Sloane*s collection as l^iedra de Yguana,"and there is little doubt but that they were taken from the urinary bladder of some of the larcrc Iguanas or tree lizards of South Americn. The other concretion had no liistorv, but had been described as **a mixed calculus in which uric acid • predominates." Although much larger, it was so similar in composition and general appearance to the others, that there . does not ap})ear any reason to doubt its having a similar ori- gin. In their external characters these concretions resembled calculi composed of the mixed phosphates^ being made up of
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On tome New Species AminaL Concretiom, 87
concentric \mym of a dirty white ooloor with a shade of pink. They were of an ovoid figure^ bat all of them were remark* able for being flattened in a peculiar manner on one side.
When heated before the blowpipe they consumed like a uric acid calculus, but left a fusible salt which spread over the platina foil, and tinged the outer flame violet. When heated in a test-tube, carbonate and hydrocyanate of ammonia with a little enipyrenmatic oil and water were priven off. Tlie car- bonaceous residue, when treated witii water, gave a snKnioii which had a strong alkaline reaction, effervesced with acids, anil emitted a sliglit (iJom of pnissic acid. Tartaric acid and chloride of {)latin i proiiuced in the solution precipitates indi- cative of the presence of potass.
Water digested upon il)c pow^krud calculus ailbrded a so- lution which depoi>ited soiall .^cali^s oi subui ate of potass upon being evaporated ; the liquor gave no precipitate with a salt of lime^ conseqnendy DO iohible oxalate was present
When digested with caustic potaiSy ammonia was freely evolved} ano the whole dissolved with the exception ofa little floGCnlent matter* The alkaline solatioDf when mixed with noriattc acid, gave a copious precipitate of uric add. It was therefore evident that these concretions consisted chiefly of urate of potass mixed with urate of ammonia.
The relative proportion of their constituents was estimated in the following manner : —
19-lOgrs., wnen submitted to a current of dry air at 212^ Fahr., lost 0*32 watrr, = ^'P>'1 per cent. The tliicd powder was digested in boiling acetic acid, which dccouiposed the urate of potass and left a rcMJue which wcii^^iicd 15*02 <Trs., = 73'64 per cent. This residue was found to consist ot uric acid, containing a sn^all trace of oxalate of lime.
The acetic solution being evaporated to dryness was boiled vviih piooi spii iii the wliole dissolved witii the exception of some light yellow flocks of anirr.al matter, which amounted to 0*52 gr., = 2-73 per cent.
The sinritoooa solntien being evaporated to dryneaii the earthv and alkaline acetates it had contabed were decom- posed by the addition of muriatic add ; the mixture was evapo- rated to dryness and healed red*bot in a platina cmeifale. The lendue dissolved entirely in water, with the exception of 0*06 gr. of phosphate of lime. The aqneons solution was mixed with carbonate of ammonia, a precipitate fellf which when dried and ignited was equivalent to 0*36 gr. of pure lime* It contained however a trace of phospliate of lime.
The solution from which the above precipitates had been separated was evaporated to dryness and the residue heated
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Si Mr. T. Tmjknr m som
red-hut. It was redissolvcd in waLci, and mixed with alcohol and chloride of platina. Chloride of platinum and potassium was thrown down, which when washed with alcohal and car«» folly dried weighed 10*32 ^rs., k 1*99 PO.
TIm qouitily of wnmonui imt eitiniflttd by boiling the pow« detvd oaloilas in a iolotkm of potassf tranitnitting tha am* mottia avolvad thnnigli dilatad muriatic aoidi and precipita- ting it in tba onlinaij nianaar oblorkk of pktii^ 11'40 gn. yialdad 4*57 of dilorMe of platina and ammoniay m 9*10 par cent. I do not» howaWf placa mnch confidenoa in thja nMMda of cstimatinff tha annonia* Tha niult of the analysts of this calcnlnsi caloolatad in 100 pnrtsi is tharsfore as follows : it 13 compared with an analysis <n tha calcolna whioh had no hMtory, In whidi tha quaaufy of potass is fathar greatari— >
Uric acid mixed with a trace of oxalate of lime 78-64 78*90
Potass 10-49 18-19
Ammonia 8*10 9*09
Lime 1-89 1*49
Magnesia 0-00 0*S9
Phosphate of lime 0-99 0*09
Aninml matter 9-78 0*49
Water 1-67 1*80
Sulphate of soda with chloride of sodinm . . traces
98-77 98-67
By another analysis, in which the quantity of potass was alone estimated by calcining the calculus uiuil nothing but carb(jnate of potass was left, and precipitating the dissolved salt by chloride of platina, 10 72 per ceuL of potass was^ found ill the first, and I f^*07 in the second calcuhis.
The puUibs ill ilicsc concretions is jirubably derived Irom the leaves and oilier vegetable maUci* on wlpch the Iguana partly subsists, while the carnivorous or insectivorous habits of the reptik are indicated by the large quantity of uric acid they contain.
Vrinaqf Cateubujrom the Stttrgeon^ consUtmg
qfLdme* Beluga stones*
These calcoli are found by the fishermen of the Caspian Sea and of the Volga In a species of Storgeon {Mpifutr ffmof Linn*). The statements of diffin^t anthofs as to the situation of the stone in the 6shi are very con6tcting» soma
describing it as o^urrlng in the air-*b]adder, others in tha head and stomach. In ochrober's MemorahiUm Mussico-jisi^ miiMf as qnoCed bj Klaproth, it is said to be most ftaqaently fmind in a snwU pouch communicatii^ with the paoorealia
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Nem Species o/ Animal Concretions.
90
dacti hit dMcription is however confused wad anatomically inoomet. The subjoined extracts from the works of Pallas 'f' IflBMi BO ea to theee ttUMMtione heias fknm tha
* ** Lea ptebenn rcncontrent atsez toovent cbns let gro9 bi^iougaii, la pierre dont j*ai parle, qui csst eocora un probi^me. lis lu vendent a uq prix assez mudique, de doux i trok rouUbi. Tous les pecheurs a qui j*en ■i parte, m'oot assart qu'on la troove dum le gros boyau, qui leur nrt k
sc vider et k jetcr Icura oeufs. On rencontre quelquefois des picrres dans les gros ecturgeoni ordiiiaires; elles sont semblables ii cellcs des bi^lougas.
(Mfaeniib hm pitrrM de bielov^ foet onSm, wsim, et quclqueaHOMi
grumel^ assez grossi^rement ; d'autres sont triangulairef et toutet phtei. Cette varietc, dans la forme et la place qu'elles occupcnt, prouvequc c*ett one yraie pierre, et non une ar^te. Elm ont toutet la couleur et ia tes- leie 4b Pirlte. Lonqa'ee l« Mn, oa liana dnt Ifur lubstaiKe dea layaae luisans spatbiques qui teodent de la circonfifaaace au centre ; outre la texture ccailleuse qu'on distingue k la premiere supcrficie, il se dctache de rintcrieur de quelques-unes de ces pierres un noyau ; il a la meme sub- stance que la pierre, mais une autre forme; il ne se trouve pm toujours au cntte. J*ea ai m pluneun qui pcsoient juaqo'ik tiait aacas; je les croTait pins peMntes d'aprk leur grosseur. On peut en raper ayec la lame a*un couteau, mais avec peine. J'u essayd d'en mettre dans des acides et je n'y ai apper^u aucune maraue d'efiervescence. En Hussie, on se sert de cette akna eaauaa raaiMa mmiestiqQe. dma les aeeoediaaiaas latietieux, poar WsaMifaMHes de Turkre et celles des enfans; il est tres en vogue, et Ton a grand tort. On en fut prendre dans do I'cau a tres-petite dose. On nt- tribue les m^mes vertus, et nombre d'autres. a ia pierre qu'on rencontre quelquefois dans la venie orioaire des sanguersy qu*oa appelle Kabannoi Kaoien, pierra da sanglier; elle est beaucoup plus chba que ealla do bU^ loiapu**'-^Tcwigcs dc Paf/as, torn. i. p. 683.
"On fendle cartilage du dos pour en retirer ks ner£i| oo let lave al etend iiur dc:^ perches pour les kite s^cher.
* O^aH to partageant ca carCiiafB daas tonte la loiigueor qva Too Croufa aarfquefois dans les plus gros ichtnyocolles cette pierre si vantde. On ne 1 apper^oit que lorsque le couteau 8*arrete au moment oii il la touehe. Cette pierre est renierniee dans ia cbair rouge glanduleuse, qui est adhe- laaia a la pertia potitfritare de r4piaa dki do^ et elle tient litt BUe est dans une petite peio particuli&a, qui remplit Tint&rieur de cette csp^c (!e glandc. Je rapportc ici ce que M. Sokolof a pu npprcndre de phis certain sur «a vraie position, des pecbeun lea plus instruits, qui assu- roient en avoir trouv^ quelqu^-unes. A' I*eat6rieur, elle est un peu moUe et humide lorsqu'elle est fraichement tiree, mais elle durcit aussitot qo'elle e-tt k Tair. Cost dans Ics peches *]ui sc font pr^ d'Astrakan qu'on la ren-
ea cwtilsge an pta coiubk"^royaget de Pdku^ ITWi tol. IL p. 480.
** In visceribas uropceis Huscnum maximorum et ictate proveetiorom s^pfiH reneritur Calculiu ovalis, deprcssus, bine concavus, solidus, albus, iotua Zcolithi fere iustar a ceotro radioUas, niiidusmie, cujus cbemica ana- Ijfrii adiiae desrt. Huao plebs Sesiica, et hononaorai edam, pro magno aedicuneoto orago^ et poitum promovente aestimant atque infantibus propinant, unde a piscatonbus pretio non exigtio rcHimuntiir, Calculi }Iu- ttmia (OjfllttiMe Kamen) oomino."— i^<>qgrap4ia Houo^^wUica, vol. iii.
Pb87.
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40 Mr. T. Taylor on some
dilated ureter or from the oonmon cloaod terroinstkio of Am got of the fish.
These concretions have generaUy a flattened oval figure^ their centre being often depremd or alighUy omcafe, Tiiey ▼ary considerably in sixe^ bat are usually about that of a hen'a egg* Their surface Is unequal but quite smooth, and of a yellowish-white colour* When broken they present a highly crystalline structure, consisting of fine plates or needles ra« diating from the centre to the circumference, but which are made up of very thin concentric layers adhering firmly toge- ther. Fragments of these calculi are translucent, and iheir interior is of a pure white colon i . They are exceedingly scarce, and are highly esteemed for ilieir supposed medicinal virtues. Dr. Cook informs us that ibe powtfcr is highly C4)ni- mended as a diuretic antl llthontriptic, and thai the common people in the ncighbourliood of the Volga take from ten to sixty grains, scraped fine in a little water^ three or four times a day when tiie case is dangerous.
The compositioii ol these calculi wa^ first determined by Klaproth, but the earliest description of them is to be found in the Pliilo^uplncal Transactions for ITl-S.
Tile specimen analysed by Klaproth had been received from Tiof. Pallas. It weighed above beven ounces troy, and consisted of albumen I, water 24, phosphate of lime 71*50, sulphate of lime 0*50.
17'1S fffs* of one of the specimens in this collection, previ- ously caKined, gave by solution in dilute muriatic acid and precipitation by oxalate of ammonia, 15*87 grs. of carbonate of lime, which is = 17*54 of the diphosphate of lime; 100 grs. of the same calculus gave^
By calculation.
Water 26*33 86<eo s 5 atoms.
Organic matter . • 0*40 1*13 Diphosphate of lime • 73'g7 73*g7 = 1 atom*
100*00 100*00
The Behiga stones therefore consist of an atom of diphos- phate of lime combined with 5 atoms of water. The water is
necessarily over-estimated in the analysis, on account of the organic matter being partially sohible in the diluted acid.
iU another and more rigid analysis, I found the calculus to consist of :;2''J1 CaO, 4.0*33 PO5, and 26'33 HO, which wonUl give 72'5^ per cent, of diphosphate of lime. This cal- culus has also been analysed by Prof. Wohler, who ascer- tained tluit four of the five atoms of water are driven off at 392^ Fahr., whiie the last atom is expelled by a red heat.
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New Spmis qf Aaimal Conareliong. 41
The pbofoboiic Mtd is thmlbre in the tribanc ttatei and the fannnift of the salt will be PO5 2(CaO), HO, +4aq. I think jt ri^t to state that the analysis of thu coocretkm had been printed aooie months pre? ions to the puUieation of Prof, paper, and its analjw was made in 184S.
ImteUinal dmeniiom.
The composition of the diffisrent kinds of intestinal concre* tions has been verv little studied by chemists; a circumstance the more remarkably as they present many points of interest both to the chemist and physiologist. The only description of these bodies to be found in the systematic works on che- mistry, IS almobt wholly derived from the paper of Messrs. Fourcroy and Vauquelin, published in the 4th volume of the Annates du Museum Natumed,
By these chemists intestinal concretions were divided into the following species:— 1, Calculi consisting of sunerphos- phate of lime; 2, of phospliate of ninprnesin ; of pnospliate of magnesia and ammonia; 4, ot a biliary matter nnnlof^ous to the culonring mntter of thu bile; 5, resinous cumcil lions; (), f im^oijs lo!ici (jU()!is ; and lastly, hair-hnlls. Tlu ir cltscrip- tiou ot thei>e bodies is liowever exceedingly sliglit and ini|)er- fect, and much iuferior in accuracy to their prL\iuiis re- searches on urinary calculi. In no instance did they deter- mine ihe relative proportion of the condliiueius of ihe earthy concretions} and under the head of resinous concretions two essentially distinct species were included.
In the Catalogue I have endeavoured to supply these de- ficiencies by submittins most of these calculi to quantitative analysis^ and by the addition of some new species. The Ibl- lowing list indndes all the intestinal concretions with which I am at prssent acquainted:— 19 Calculi consisting of animal hairs; % of vegetable hairs; 3, of ellagic acid — the orunial hezoar ; 4, of resino<ijeaoardic add^the occidental bezoar ; 5, of phosphate of magnesia and ammonia ; 6, of diphosphate of magnesia ; 7, of diphosphate of lune; 8, of oxalate of lime; 9^ ^ambergris.
The lUlagic Acid Calculm,^The Oriental Bezoar,
The emnposition of this species of calculus was described 10 a report to the Museum Committee in 1811, and in May ISiS I was permitted to insert a short notice as to its compo- sition in die Loiuloii and Edinburgh Philosophical Magazine, Since that jxriod ihe ellagic acid calculus hns been examined by MM. Meikleia and W 6hier» who have couiirmed my state-
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M Mr. T. Ti^ior on wmt
Moti M to ki Mlm^ Ttm ihmU of m rmM of Ibe cbonioia cbmGtifi of Omh «iiicfHkM with dNM of tllMiGorid preptrad fiom iho Mtt^iofct so iiiUjr flmOilMied Ihtg idtPtiiy, that 1 lUd not liMik k ntoiOMiy to
my statemeot by mi ttltiiMie mmUjmf eapeciallj htm tiM limited quantities of the calculus oo which I ooam operate^ and
the facility with which eliagic acid becomes oxidized when dissolved in an alkali, I did not feel otrtain that I could en- sure that perfect purity without which an oi|puiic analysis is wholly valueless. lu ultimate analysis has however been mudo by MM. Merklein and WohJer, who have foiuid it to igvea with the analysis of oUaglo acid by M. PekMiis^ mimu ooo atom of hydrogen.
The following description of the eliagic acid calculus, its properties and history, 1 shall quote verbntim from the Col- lege Catalogue published in July 184-5, as it conveys in a con- densed form the results of a long and troublesome saries of experiments.
" Eliagic acid calculi are generally of an ovoid figure ; their outer surface is smooth, polished, and of a deep olive or greenish brown colour; internally they are brown; they are made up of ihin concentric layers, which in some cases adhere so slightly together, as to cause the calculus to fail to pieces on attempting to divide it with a saw. When any of the outer layers of these calculi arc removed, the exposed surface readily acquires a high polish by slight friction, and when cut or scraped they assume a waxy lustre. These calculi in- variably contain some foreign body as their nucleuii} which is generally a sniali twig or seed.
* Jm, der Chemie und Pharm., August 1845, If by Clie fetkmioc pSi- Mce, ** Aus dieter Zoauninenft^zung und den oben angegebeoen kigeo-
scnaften dcr BezoarsSiire fobt ferner dcr merkwUrdigc Umiitnnd, ihs» diete Sut»8tanz, wie bereits von Tn. Taylor vcroiuthet wurdc, in dcr That nichts Anderei ist als Ellagsaure oder die Saure, die suerst von Chevreul aus dea GalliiprelD dargestellt und von Braconnot nilier umsfwicfct wordea kt, Um nicht den geringsten Zweifel hicriihcr zu las«en, habcn wir selbst El- lagsHure nus Galliipfeln dar^estcllt urul ihre Eiccnschaften mit dcncn der Bczoarsjiure vergfichen ; sie zcigtcn sich vollkommen idcntisch,'" MM, Merklein and W'ubler intend to iniplv that some doubt existed in my mind ai to cba eompositkm of this eomralfon, I beg to rtalo tbil fodi was aoe the CMOS and it is difficult to conceive on what grounds they could form such an opinion, as in the notice alluded to I simply stated (MlfroliQ the most concise and positive terms that could be made use of.
t For U)e oimuriunity of doing this on rather a large scalc^ I am in- debted to my (hond Mr. T. Ifonon, who kindly placed tt my disfKiMl a lir|0 qvmtity of tbo residue left In the preparation of gallic acid, and it gives me much ptoaHHt lo Imm an opportanitjr of aduMwIodsim Uiit aad UBuUr fiRvvun.
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New SpKk9 Animal Omereiums. 4S
Tlie chemical characters of the constituent of these calculi agree so oiactly with thoM of elli^e aoid pfoourid ftom IIm InfWon of giU^nati} at to km no doobt of tlitir being com- posed principallr of mbsttnm. Wbtn htitad thoy do not fiiM^ but «M « flight bihunfo odoor and partially lab- Um i If more highly heated they eatah fire» burn with a low flaoM^ gi?a off tM ttiiell of banung wood» and leave behind a cafbcNiaoeous ash. If the powder of the calculus be heatod in m glass tube a yallow sublioiata is produced, which con* dmas in the form of long spear- shopoJ crystals of a yellow coloiM", with a shade of green. These crystals do not differ in their chemical liabitudes from the powcfer of the calculus, and thev are itieiulcal in shape and iippcar:ince with tho«ie procured from the ellagic acid of the ijall-iiut wIkh similarly treated. When the calculus is rediucci to powder and dil- iused through water, several days elapse befoi o tlie whole of the powder is deposited, and the water remains ojialescent even tbi weeka. ii is also difficult to separate the powder by filtration, as tlie liquid passes turbid for some time.
Ellagic acid calculi easily dissolve, with the exception dS a Ibw floaks^ fat a oold solation of oaostk) potass or soda* Tha sohrtkm Is of a dasfirbrowidsh tad eidoar, with a sbada of graao % whao tha alli^o add 1% howa? af^ fi«ad from sooia as* tracthra or oolonring matter with which it is g«ierally mixed fal the calcultUf the solution b of so deep a yellow as to ap* paar rod whan viewed in bulk* Muristic acid throws down from tha potass solotion a ^vssnish, buff-coloured powder^ while the supernatant liquor is of a light red coloar. If tha precipitate be examined by the microscope, it is seen to con- sist of small thread-like particles, generally blunt, hut some- limes tapering at their extremities, ami wliieh are occasionaliy twisted or curved, especially if the suliition 'ivovn which they were thrown down was hot: they are nut transparent* and Can scarcely be tt rmed crystals.
«' When tiie potass solution is exposed to tiie air, oxygen and carbonic acid are absorbed, the solution l>ecomes much darker coloured, and a silky greenish yellow precipilute is deposited, consisting of ellagate oT potass. This precipitate appears under tha asiorosoopa aa thin rectangular plates, frec)uent]v arranged n stallata groups. If a currant of earbonle add is passed through the solution} a boff^coloured precipitate of ellagate of potai^ is thrown down» while the sufMBmataot liquid remains of a dark reddish colour.
£llagic acid calculi are vary sparingly aolabla in solatlon of ammonia; the liquid acquires a yellow colour, which on ax*
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#4 Mr. T, Taylor on some
posnre to the air becomes brown end torbid. The small quanp tily of ellagic acid dissolved ispredphaled by an acid.
*^ Concentrated sulphuric acid readfly dissolyee these calculi when assisted by a gentle heat The solution is of a greenish brown ooioury and is precipitated by dilution with water. The precipitate has the form of minute prisms arranged in stdlate gron^ ; the extremities of some of the prisms are blunt* othera arc pointed.
When mixed with nitric acid, the ellagic acid calculus dis- solves. If t!ie acid be stron'' or slii'lith' warmed, effervescence takes place, nitrous fumes ai e given oiV, and a solution is pro- diiL Lcl of a beautiful pink-red colour, simihir to that produced by tiie action of nitric acid upon unc acid. 1 he red colour quickly disappears upon standing; on being licated, a deep yellow solution remains, from which crystals ol oxalic acid may be obtained by evapoi aiion. Ammonia added to the so- luiion caubci) it tu assume a red colour, but dues nut render it turbid.
The eOagie acid is best obtuned from these CBlenli by die- solving the powdered calculus in a weak solution of causde potass, and transmitting through it a current of carbonic acid. The precipitate which mils is to be dig^ted in diluted muri- atic acid, pv which the potass is removed, and tolerably pore ellagic acid remains. During the whole of the operation great care must be taken to prevent the contact of atmospheric air; for when dissolved in alkaline liquids, ellagic is quickly converted into a species of ulmic acid. It is not improbable that catechuic acid is sometimes present in these calculi.
"This species of intestinal concretion appears to have been first examined by Fourcroy and Vauquelin, and is included in their class of resinous Bezoars*. It was siiortly afterwards examined by Bertiiollet, and subsequently by other chenusts, all of whom failed in deciding upon its true nature; even so recently as 1843 this calculus was described by M. Lippowitz as consisting of a pL caliar organic acid, for which be proposed the name ot Bezoaric acidf.
The concretions analysed by Berihollet, and of the proper- ties of which he has given a very accurate aoconnt, had bem
* " La Mcoode variety d*une couleur brune ou violac^e, sans saveur axnire, presqoe iuoluble daos I'aicuhol, enticement foluble dans \m alcalitt don* iKint dans cctte dcrni^re dissolution unc liqueur qui dcvient rouge purpu- riiie, lorsqu'elle sV'[mis«!t ct sc stichc \\. Vmv- fournissant l\ la distillatioti uu subline concretfjauue, d'uuu suveur et d'uuc couleur de &uie, insoluble dans I'eati 0t daat l*a]ioobol**'~-'^MMiBt Ai JfitflMi MiHidMsl^ torn* hr* aSV*
\ iSiiion'i Btitmmt sar Am. mdPmUioL Cktmk mi Jliiiwlesw'. B. L
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New Species of Animal Concretions, 45
presentid to the £iii{>eror Napokon by the Shah of Persia* Tb^ were of a greenish brown colour externally, and brown within ; they had an oval figure, and their surface was highly
polished ; they were formed of irregular concentric h^'cr^, and in tlie centre of all of them wns some vegetable matter; iliuir sp. gr. = J*46.S. They were regarded !)y Rerthollet as con- sisting of tlie \\ ot)dy fibre (///tn/m) of ibe loud of the animal, and he conjectuios tl uu iIkv must have been taken from the stomach, on account oi ihe little alteration which the vege- tiibie matters that loi ined their nucleus* hatl undergone.
The constituent of the ellagic acid calculus is likewise de- scribed by John under the name of Bezoarsioff'-\; and Leo- pold Gmetin thinks it probable that the calcufi examined by John were identical in composition with those analysed by Bertfaolletli and tbat ifaey consisted of a species or ulmin arisiM; from the deeomposnion of woody fibre or lignin.
" From the descriptions which Tavern ier, Ka^mj fcr, and other Oriental travelers have given of the Oriental Bezoar, corroborated by the analyses of Fourcroy and Bertholleti there is no doubt that it is identical witli the ellagic acid con* cretion above described. The signs by which a true Oriental Bezoar might be distinguished were, according to Tnvernler, by steeping it in hot water, and observing whether the liquid became coloured, or the stone lost in weiMit. It cither of tliej^ occurred, the stone wns to be regarded as fictitious: but the best test was to -ApyAy :i red-hot iron wire to the calculus, v*licii, if it mtltLd i\nd permitted the iron to cuter, it was cer- tainly fictitiouo. Another test consisted in smearing a piece of paper with chalk, and rubbing the calculus over it. The genuine stone always left a greenish mark. All these criterln would be IblfiUed \ty the ^laglc add calcnlus, but by none of the other species
This species of concretion was the most Talned of the Be> loarSi and is denominated by Ksempfer the < was et pre- tioens AuaAr/ from whidi word, by a coiTuption of sounds he believes the word Bezoar to have been denved.
With regard to the origin of this concretion, we have the fullest and most satisfactory evidence. W. Methold» Fryer, Tavernter and Ka^mpfer all agree that it is taken most fre- <|uently from the alimentary cannl of n species of wild goat termed Pasni by the Persians, whicii iiiliabits the nKumtninons ridges lu Persia, particularly in the province of Chorasoau or
* Menunres de la SocUU d^/frcueU, torn. ii. p. 4 18. t Ckmi. Schr. iii. 38. ♦ Hamlbuch der Chcmic, B. ii. S. 828, 1488.
4 In the Sloanian MS. Catalogue ail theeUi^adU calculi were termed Bait ladian or Oriental Bezoors.
I
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On some New Species of Animal Concretiouu
Cborumia. Tavernier states that they likewife come from s
province of the kingdom of Golconda. The account as to the exact situulion of tlie stone is however not so clear. Most writers imlicnte the maw or stomach: Kasmpfer says it is found in tiie pylorus, *sive productior quarti, tjuem vocant ventriculi fundus*,* and that the natives are in the habit of AScertaiDing how many stones are contauied in the stomach by feelin^r tin (High the pai iclc^ of the abdomen, the value of the aiuiiial being considerably enhanced by their presence. When recently taken from the animal, they are said to be •ooMirhat softy or of Uui copslstwic^ of a bara-botied egg, and lliat in ordor to pMenrethamtt was owtomary to plaoe tbam m the nmthv and reliio tiMtt theie imUl they a^ haidnan.
Tlie Ovfmtal Bomr was not bowefar confined to tha wild
goat8» or to the ruminant tribes, as tlie Ptdrm Bugki or Apa stone also consists of ellagic acid. These concretions were liald in higher esteem than those from tha iioat» and weM oa*
nerally included, for the sake of preserving them, in a small cavity scooped out of two portions of a very light wood, which were held together by liotifis wove from the twif»s of the Ho- taiiij; rnnr. There is in the iMuseum n specimen preserveti in tlii> iiuiiiiiur. Kaempfer int<;i ins us thai they were fcnjud in a species ol ape termed Antar l)y the Mongols, whicli iie be- lieves lo l>ti tiie Uabiaunvi cynocephalum. Tile composition of iliese concretions renders their origin no longer ii matter of uiiceriuiniy, and confirms, in a very remarkable manner, tlie statements of Tavernier and Ksmpfer, that they are d^ved from the juices of the plants on which the animals ledL"
MM. MerUain and Wohler hafe proposed chat tha woid allegic should be changed for thai of beaeark acid, partly ha» cause the German word **Ghdl," when reversed, bnoicapabla of being convartsd intoallagic, and partly from its want of eu- phony. If wa wais Inwaever, for the sake of euphonjr* to p^fast aU the inharmonious appellations wl|ich tha indnstry of mo^ dern chemists lias introduced into the science, we might alter half the names at present in use; besides, as the elh^ic acid was first i^rocnreil Irom tiie gall-nut by Chevreul ruui subse- quent ly nanied by Hraconnot, I think il a niaiter u( courte^ to adhere to its T i ench derivation. The term ijezoaric W also pecuiinrly imptoper, inasmucli as it w ovild i niply thai tiie «^iire cia^ of be^eoars consisted of ihi. ])ecuimi^- acid,
1 remain, dear hSir,
Yours most truly,
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X, Inquiries tn the Elenunls />/" l^honetia^* . By C. B. Cayley, FeU^ of Tnniii/ College^ (Jambridgt*
To the EdUon ^ ike PhihtopkM Magamm ami JornnoL
OCHBMB qf Cmwmanis^^Uqmd Jt^raUi4 — I Btart with ^ that scheme which has the autlioritv of Messrs. Latham and Wbewell |[waivinr^ some undecided pointsjy to which I wookl make a few adcfitions. I denote, for convenience^ the aspirates (so called perhaps fitly, as the breatfali^ b mom h«ird in ihem) universally by adding to the corresponding non-aspirates a small wnich tliiis becomes a symbol from a letter, and 1 make «/, suitahijr to iti £Mrm and origtnf stand Ibr German J, Ku^^h Y,
Sharp. Flat. Liquid.
P Ph B Bh M . . W
T Th D Dh N
K Kh G Gh L . . J
S Sh Z Zh R . . (place uncertain)
I observe iliai the Hat consonants ap|K^ai lunnetl from the sharp by an effort (to make their sound strdii;^^! and more coiiiiiuious), which also, Itciiii; repeated^ couvcru the flat into the iiquid. i his *^llbrt has iiui prevented, in the flnt order, the introdncliun of the secoiu! loi co of a-.|)iratioii in ilie .sliurp: licucc llicic i3 soiue ie4ii»ou tocoajecUiic that iheliquiiis might be susce()Uble of this force. In short, die symmetry of the ^r^em iraolna an order of liquid aspiratesb which miglii be wrimsn Bik^ 2^ Lht Bh. liay we not identify Mh with Frandi m orn iMail» lik with English Nf, Uk w^ Welsh Awiih AiaUcOhMn?
Gottecming the latter two^ my chief dtfikail^ is to know whcttier thoy are simple or compound sonndsf oat
The Welsh U is statsd k Davis's GnMnaaar to ht iha asm> rale of /«, proBonnced by pressing the agauMl the
teeth on both sides with a forcible emission oforeath*
Tim ArabicGhfitn is described by De Sacynsasoundresem- hiifig li and G, comme TR grais&aye des Provencntix." We odtjM hear itnpL-riect pronunciatioBi ol^ whlch might givtt tlie idea of this secondary hquic!.
But I shaii chiefly insist du Aih or ni nnsnl, liecause it coin- cides wiih /"'and F, the aspirates as M wiiii />, A' w iih Z>, 8cc. Compare the pronunciation of combattre^ cntctuhe^ en/ant^ envahir; likewise it has the same resemblance lu ihc denial xV, which Phi Bh bdnff formed by the teeth in pan have to Th (wlienee im iwmiiMWii nade tiy chihlren in those sounds, and « fBMB tottart liilrsMiil to Mr, LatlwMaw
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48 On Fiii:>nei':» Theory of Uijuhle Refractim,
the Ilussiiui corruptions Fcodor, Marphsy &c. for Thtodon^ Martha)| lo that all the labial aspirates would approximate to dentals, and on this principle might it be that the liquid ospirate Nh appmcbce the next o^er of gutturals.
Should this paper be adnuttedi I shall hereafter consider some objections that have been communicated to me^ and pn»> ceed to aa attempted anaJyau of vowel sonnds.
XL On FresnePs Theory of Double Bi^fructkm* By Aachibalo Smith.
To ihe Ediian of the nUotophkal Magazine and JomnaL
TN an article on FresneVs Theory of Double Refraction, in the Supplciiitjnt to the DcceiJiber Number of the Philo- 8m)hical Magazine, Mr. Moon has (juoted t ot* nn article or mine in the first volume of tlie Cambridge Maiheuiaticfil Join tial, in which the following passage occurs : — " Let the particle receive a small displacement, tlie projLcUons ot which on the co-ordinate axes are ^j:, ^z. Then supposing the dis- placeineiil Lu be very small, t/ic force of restitution maij be taken as jiroporttofial lo li, so thai we have,*' &c. I am not surprised that Mr. Moon should remark on this passage, ^ Wiiat is meant by the mysterious principle ' supposing the displacement to be very small, the roroe of resUtiitMn may be taken as proportlnnal to it»' I profess myadf unable to ualdei^ staQd.**
The daase m italics, which was added to my mamiseript when it was se&t to the press, to remove, I believe^ what was thought an abruptness in the reasoning, is certamty incorrect when applied to a doubly refractiiig mediom. . What was in- tended to be expressedt no doubt, was, that in the case sup- posed terms involving powers of Hjt, higher than the first ni \i^hi be neglected. But this expression is only equivalent to the other in the case of a singly refinacting medium. I may mention that in the middle of pege 7 ot the article in thie Cambridge Mathematical Journal, the word ^^rays" wai^ by a mistake, substituted for waves." These mistakes are corrected in the second edition of the first volume of the Cambridge Mathematical Journal which is now printing. As they have been noticed in your Journal, I shall feel much obliged by your inserting this expLanatioa when you can aiurd space for it.
Your obedient Servant, S6 Old Sqmttp Lioeola'f Inn, I>ec. S», Aitcm^ALD Smitu.
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Xir. On ike Origin 0e cOHSiiHuni and adveniUiom Mine- rah of Trap and ike allied Bocks. By James D. Daka*.
THE minerals of trap and the ailiad rocks may be arrangied in two groups :— 1. Those essential to the const it iition of the rocky or iiiti- malely disseminated through its uxtm e.
9, T ho^e wliich coiistitiUe nodules or occupy seams or cavilii's in these rocks.
or ihe firbt group, arc the several felspars, with angilc*, hornblende) epidote, chrysolite, leucite, specular, imigiietic and titanic iron ; and occasionally Uauyne, sodalite, sf)henc, mica, quartz, garnet and pyrites. Of the second group are anarta^ either crystallized or chsloedonic^ the zeolites or iiy- drotis silicatesy Heulandite^ Laumonite^ stilbite, epistilbtte^ DatroHte^ scolecits^ mesole, Thomsonlte» Phillipsite, Brew- alerite, harmotome, analcime, Ghabazite» dysdasit^ pectolitey apopbyllile, prehnite, dathoIite» together with spathic iron^ calc-spar and chlorite. Native copper and natife silver might be added to boili groops* yet they belong more pr«^)erly to the latter. To the same also might be added sulphar, and the various salts that are known to proceed from decomposi- tions about active volcanoes, including the crystallizations of alum, gypsum, strontinn, ^cc. ; but these more properly form still a third group, and bcinsr well understood, will DOt COOie under consideration in the remarks which follow.
We observe witli regard to the minerals of the first group, that they all anhydrous, that is, contain no water. In this respect, the essential constituents of trap and basuU are like those of granite and syenite. BuL in Llie ijccoiid group, consisting of the minerals occurring in cavities or seams, all contain water except pectolite, quartz, calo-spar ami spathic iron; and the hut three are known to be always deposited m an anhfirmu stale from aqueons solutions.
We proceed to give a few brief hints with regard to the first group, intending only to glance at this brsnch of the snb* jecty and then take np more ai length the group of adventi- ttous minerals.
JBaential constituenU cf moder n Plulonic roda^lt is ob» Tious that modem igneous rocks, although in aonift cases de- rived from the original material of the globe, have proceeded to a great extent from a simple fusion of rocks previously ex- isting, and especially of the older igneous rocks. In accord- ance with this view, we may with reason infer that the tra-
• Read before Che Association of American Geologhtl SOd Natnnlistty May, 1845, and communicated by the Author.
PkU. Mag. S. 3. VoL 28. No. 184. Jan. 1846. * E
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50 J. D. Dana on thg Minerals qf Trap
chjttts and porphyriesy wluch ooniUt oiwnriiiHy of felspiiry have proceeded, in wmn tnitimoQe at leasts Ifoni felspathic granites; the basalts and trap from syenites^ hornblende or augitic rocks.
A theory proposed by Von Buch snpposaa Chat the fel- spalhtc rock% as they are of less specific gravi^, are from the earliest eruptions, or the more superficial fusincs, white the heavier basalt has eome from greater depths. Dannn thos
accounts for the granites of the surface being intersected by basaltic dykes; the latter having originated from a deeper source, where their constituents took their place at some former period from their superior gravity. It virtually places hornblende rocks below (elspalhic grnnitp'^ m the interior structure of our <rlol)p. Tfic fiypoTlir-is in^ nious and de- mnnds consideratiou; but it may nut be time Lo give it oar full confidence.
But su})| losing ihe.>e more modern rocks lo have ht-Lri cIl'- rived from the more nncient granitic — what has become of tiie quartz ami mica which occur so abundantly in the latter, while they are so uncommon in the former ? By what changes have they disappeared ?
In tlie fusion produced by iiucrual iires, the elements are free to move and enter into any combinations that may be favoured by their aflRnities. If silica, alumina, magnesia, lime, iron, the alkalies, potash and soda, were fused together— autl 'these are the actual constituents of basalt — what re&uli might we expect ? From known facts, we should conclude that liie silica would combine with the different bases, and these simple silicates would unite into more complex compounds. Ihe silicates of alumina and the alkalies or iime^ form thus one set of compoondst the felspars; the silicates of magnesia aiMl tha Isomorphotts basesi iron aiiid lim^ another se^ to which be* long augite, hornblende and chrysolite; and if much iron la present! we murht have with the lime and alnminay the mine- ral epidote. The expenments of Berthier, Mitscherlich and RosCf and the facts ooserred amongst fiimaoe slags, confirm what is here stated.
But not to go back to a resolution of the fused minerals into their elementsy we may consider for a moment what chanra the minerals themselves might more directly undergo in uie process of fusion.
Mucli of the mica in granite difiers from felspar in con* taining half the amount of silica in proportion to the bases, the bases in each l)elng alumina and potash or soda. The chanj^ then in the conversion of the mica into felspar would require an addition of silica, which might be derived from the
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Iko qoMti of granite. Other varieties of mica ooDtain BM^ nesi% wlilch Muid go towards the formation of some mineral of the mngnesian seriaa« It is nonibla Uiat tracbylta and
porphyry have thus been made from granite; but trap rocks could not have been so derivedi as way oontaiu from 10 to per cent, less of silica.
Apain, hornlik'mle and angite are so nearly relntet), that tliey Imve been i oi)>itfered by Rose the same imneral, llie ilit- ferent circuinstaiu i.s uiUiiding the coolinjr givinnj rise to the few peculiarities pre»eiUecl. There can bL- iiu JifHculiy there- fore in deriving augite by fusion from hornbieiide rocks. This moieuvcr has been actually confiriiKtl by experiment.
Aiigite, by giving up half of its bilica, and receiving addi- tional maffiiesia in place of its lime, is reduced to cbn^soiite*. The OahMoite, neuidiDei aoorthita and meioBlta of Vetnviusi contain, like anpcNite, only 40 to 45 par oent of silica and a large proporiioii of lima» and it u no improbable supposttiont ju<%ing from the small amount of silica* and from the lima presenti tbai scapdtte rockf or rather limestones containing aeafnlit^ may have contributed in part towards the lavas of that rsgion. The factions of unaltered granular limestones, and many mineral species pertaining to such beds, strongly support this view; nnd it is no less sustained by the fact, that in the V^esuvian basalts, Labrndorite, which includes lime in- stead of the alkalies, replaces common felspar. The original lelspar seems to have given wny to leucile nnd T.ahradorite f,-
An important source oi" new combinations is lound in the sea-water which ijain*; nroess to the fires of volcanoes. The decomposition wincli iako place elmunatcs muriatic acid, so dften detected among vcdcauic vapours; but the soda and utiier iixed constitueiiLs remain, to enter into combination with some of liic ingredients in fusion. Is not this one source
the soda forming the soda felspar, or albit^ and of the muriatic add and socb In sodalita r Pbosphates have been long known to eocur occasionally in volcanic roclu» and lately phosphoric add haa been proved to be generally common in small quantities. Sea^water is also a very probatda source of ibis li^edient, as has been shown by lata analysee of the same bjF I)r« Jackson.
• The Ibmnfai of aagKe it R*%i| that dfchryseliti^ R*8i.
t XhkngKkit thebswstnd 81 for tilica, tht fbrmiihof Icadte fsHfli^; fhet of connnoR felifMr, R 8i*; that of Labradorite, H Si. From this, it appears that felspar may be reduced to lencite by giving' tip: one-third of
\U silica, the bases bcin'j thr name in the tno; ami with this excess and other uiica coubiaiof wiiii the iimc ai iumd, Labradoht£ uii^^bt btt formed.
£2
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52
J. D. Dana on the Minerals 0/ Trap
These few hinU are berely sufTicient to indicate something of the interest that attaches to this field of investisatioiit which the future developments of science will probabw open fully to view. We do not attempt to explain why in these modem fusings, mica should not have remained mica, and the quartz still free uncombined quartz. The facts prove some peculi- arity of condition attendincr il)e formation of the granitic rocks, or this condition we know notliing certain, and can only suggest tlie coiDinon supposition of a higher heat and slower cooling, attending a greater pressure and diflerent electrical conditions, and the same circumstances may have existed during the granites of difierent ages.
With these brief suggestions I pass to the second division of the subject before us.
8. Minarals occupying cavUies ondieam m ann^sdaloidai trap orhatttlU — ^These minerab have been attributed to a varie^ of sources^ and even at the present time there are various opi- nions respecting their origin. According to some writers, thi^ result from tiie process of segregation ; that is, a sepa- ration of part of the material containing rock during its cool- ing by the segregating powers of crystallisation; and in illus- tration of the process we are pointed to the many segregations of felspar, quartz and mica, m granite and otner rocks, the siliceous nodules in many sandstones, the pearlstones in tra- chytes and obsidian. Others have thought them foreign pebbles, enclosed at the time the rock was formed. Again, they are described as proceeding from the vapours wl)ich permeated the rock wliile still liquid, and which condensed as the rock cooled, in cavities pro(luced by the vapours. 13y a few it is urged, admittiii«r that the cavities are inflations by vapours like those of common lava, that they may have been filled either at the time the rock cooled or at some subseauent ttme^ either by crystallisation from vapours, or from innltra- tinff fluids, but more flenerally the latter*
Of these views we believe the hwt to accord best with the fitttt.^ Macculloch, in his Svstem of Oeolcny— a work whidi anticipated many of the geological principieB that have since become popular— dweUs at Ittgth on this sulgect^ and sup- ports the opinion here adoptad with various facts and aigQ- ments. Lyell also admits the same principles. A review of the facts will enable us to Judge of its correctness.
1 . In the 6rst place, the cavities occupied by the nmluke are in every respect similar to the common inflations or air- bubbles in lava. These cavities are open and unoccupied in common lava, and may be no less frequently so in the ejec- tions under water; and should they not be expected to dli in
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some instances hy infiltration ? They are the very places where an infiltrating fluid would deposit its sediment, or collect and cr^stalllw^ if capable of crjatallixatton ; and sncfa infiltrating fluids are known to permeate all rocka, even the most sc^id, and especially if beneath a body of water* It isevident^ tber^ fore, that we are supporting no strange or improbable hypo- thesis. On M»ne volcanic shores one variety of the process may be seen in action. The cavities of a lava may be de- tected in the process of being filled with lime from the sea** water washing over dead shells or coral sand, and at times a perfect amygdaloid is formed. But the positions and cha- racters of the minerals themselves establish clearly the view we supi^ort.
2. 1 he mineral in ihese cavities sometimes only fills their lower half, as if deposited from a solution ; ami au;aii), it in- crubts the upper half or roof, as if solidified on infiltrating through. In the large geodes of chalcedony, stalactites de- pend from above like those of lime Iroiii the roof of caverns, anil, Maccuiluch ^Laica, tiie stalactite is often iound lu cor- respond to an inferior stalagmite,the fluid silica having dripped to the bottom and there become solid ; moreover, the snperior pendent stalactite is sometimes foand united with the stalag- mite below. The same results are here observed as with lime stalactites in caverns, and often a similar laminated or banded stmctnre, the result of deposition in successive layers. Such results can proceed only from a slow and quiet processy— « gradual infiltration of a solution iirom above into a ready- formed cavity ; they can no more be supposed to arise from ascending vapours, or gaaeous emanations from below, than the stalactite in the limestone cavern.
Anotlier fact is often observed. A gcode of quartz crystals, sometimes amethystine, in which every crvstal is neatly and regularly formed, is found with the surface coatrd over with an incrustation of chalcedony, the jiart above iianging in small stalactites: and this chalcedonic cont sometimes scarcelv rid- lieres to ilie crystals it covers; or is even loose, and may lie easily separated. There can scarcely be a doubt of a subio- Cjucnt innltrauun in a case of this imiuie.
We might re.st om: argument here, since the fact being as- certained with regard to quartz, it is necessarily establidied as a general principle with reference to the aeolites and other amy^dfttoidal minerab ; for muurts or chalcedony, when pro- aent in these cavities, is, with rare exceptions, the Umer or aater mineral. We find zeolites implanted on quartz, but venr seldom quartz on zeolites. I have met with no instance of the latter^ while the former is the usual mode of occuwepce.
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Any deiliiciioii, tlterefore^ respecting quartz, holds equally for the asjiociated [iiiiierals,
I [ow a cavity coaled with a ileposit of chalcedony can still he iitiLi wards filled up wiili uiher minerals, has been deerneil a liiybievy in science, bul thf poiMbiliiy of it is now noL doubled. Even nint and agate, as Maccuiloch states*, are known to give pMMiffe to oil and sulphuric acid ; and much more will this tttke ploOB in tho moist rocks before the agate baa been hard* enad by es^ioture to the air. Silica remains in a gelatimnia slata loir a long period after depoiitioo* and in thii oondidoo is readily permeable by solationa. It ia not necaaaary that tha fluid whicti hat acted the part cyf a lohent and filira the ca- vity, should yield place to another portion of flaid ; ibr the proeass of cr^stalliaation having commenced^ a new portion of dbe material is constantly drawn in to the same flnia» and the neccMry chemical changes are also promoted by the indmv tive influence of the changes in pro^^ress — the catalytic actioa as It is callad^-ooe of the most efficient» and at the same time one of the most oniversal agendas in nature.
Other evUlcnce with reference to amygdaioidai minersis ia presented by the aeolttes themselves.
3. The zeolites occupy veins or teams as well as cavities. Often the seams were opened by the contvsctioa of the cooling rock, and at other times they wen of mors recent origin, in either case the rainerab filling these seams must be subsequent in formation to the origin of the rock itself and could not have proceeded from vapours attending the eruption. These seams sometimes open upward and can be seen to have no connexion with the parts below, the rock in this portion being solid. Origin from above or trom either side^ is the only fiU{>- position in snrh cn.'^cs.
Messrs, Jackson aiiti Al^rerj in tlieir valuablp memoir on the geolofry of Nova Scotia, mpntioii ilir occurrerjc c of crystals of analcinie attached to tiu' cxtn inilv ofa filaincni of copper, the copju 1 baving been the nucleus about winch tlie solution crystallized, and state that their formation must have been subsequent to the foniiation of tiie rock.
4. Zeolites, moreover, have hvcii t'oand iurming sialactites in ba>:i]iic caverns, as was oliscrved bv the writer in some of the I'aciiic i-LukU : aiic! I):-. 1 liuiii^on has described and analysed one ^^AiiUiiuoiiLej iiom Antrim in liclaad near die Giant'i> Causeway.
Tlnse facts favour throughout the view we urge, that the atnygdakidal minerals have in general resulted fimn infiitim- tioni and were not necessarily kmed simnltanaonaly with tbe entpssn moK»
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5. We remark further, that no lavaa have ever been ihoim
to oontain at the time of ejection any of the zeoh'tlc minerals. The zeolites of Vesuvius are known to occur only in the older lavas, and afford no evidence nr^ainst our position. The cavities in lavas, as far as observeti, nre en\])\\ as they come from itie volcanic fires, with t!ie exception ot iIhno roiUainiug sparinjily some metallic on ^ w hid) nre condenseil within them. Considt 1 ing the fusibility ot tiie zeolites and their easy destruc- tion by iieat and by volcanic gases, sulphureous and ujui iauc, we should ^ priori bay thuL ihcy could iioL be ioimed under such circumstances.
6. Bettdet, as we have stated, none the proper consti* tnants of trap or ba8ak--or the minerals dbteminatod tbrmjcH these rocke^— -00018111 water. Tbey are all anhydrona* Tbm minerals formed accidentally in fiirnaces are anhydrous. Tiie oonstitoents of granite, syenite and porphyry, are all anhy- drooa» It is onfy those minerals which are found in geodes or seams that conmin water. Of equal importance is the lacty that none of the essential eoostituents of these rocks have ever been fbond in these geodes or cavities along with the zeolites^ as might have been the case had thev been formed together, by segregation or otherwise. Neither felspar, although so abundant, nor aucfite, nor chrysolite, have been found filling, like zeolites, oi with them, the cavities of amyi^daloiil. There is then a widt distinction between tlie anhyiirous coDStitueotS of these rock-j and the hydrous zeoliiic minerals.
A few zeolites liave been found in granite or gneiss, but they are so disseminated that th* v can bt; aiiown to be of mure modern origin than the rock, and to have resulted from some decompositions of true granite minerals. They differ entirely ia tlieir mode of distribation Irom the felspar, garnet, &c. oif granite. Aloiiff witbi the deeomposing felspar it is not on* asnal to find salbtte in the cavities formed by the decom i)o- sitma.
2eolilS8 also liave been found disseminated thiouffh the texture of basalt, clinkstone, &c., like the felspar, augite, &c. iktt the proportion varies widely, and in some parts of the same bed they are found to be wanting: so that we have sd& ficieot reason for classing these disseminated zeolites with those in the cavities, ns formed or introduced by infdtration.
7. Bearing upon this subject, it should be observed, that the con'ctitucnt^ tjfnmygdaloidal !ninei*al8 are, in general, those oJ ilic contain II I L'^ rock. Silica, potash, soda, alumina, are iotiiul in the felspars; lime, magnesia ami iron, ii» augite or hornblende ; iron and magnesia in chrysolite. These are all
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£6 J* D. Dana on Ihe Minerals of Trap
the constituents needed* esoept a little baryta for one The feLupar decomposes readily and gives up its in|{re3ieotfl^ its potasih or soda, silica and alumina; the same is true of ai^te and chrysolite, which afibrd magnesia, lime, silica and iroD. With water to infiltrate, we should therefore have all the necessary ingredients at hand for the required compounds. The fact already stated, that zeolites have been found as sta- lactites in caverns, seems to prove tliat they (Jo actually re- sult from decompositions and recompositions, such as have been supposet^. Tlius we have all the conditions at hand ne- cessary for producing, by infiltratioiT, the zeolites and the chlorite nodules of these rocks ; the alutnina, alkalies and lime, contribute, along with a portion of the silica, to the zeolites, and the magnesia, iron, and another portion of the silica, to the chlorite *, often as abundant as ihe lui uier. The amyg- daloidal nodule.s iVccjuently have a green coating, ^\ llich fur- ther indicates the probable truth of tliese views ; Tor it appears evidentlpr to be a precipitate from the solution before a cry- stallization of the zeolites took place — a settling, perhaps, of the insoluble impurities taken up by the filnating fluid in its passage through the rock, or of the formed chlorite, less so- luble than the zeolites. Occasionally, when the rock contains copper, these nodules have an earthy coating of green carbo- nate of copper — the carbonate having proceed, apparently, from the native copper of the rock, by the same process as explained.
The hypothesis of filtration seemsi then> to be at least the principal source of these minerals. In some instanoes the filtrating fluid mav have derived its ingredients from distant sources. The salts of sea*water may act an important part in these changes. Silica is dissolved on a grand scale during submarine eruptions, as we have elsewhere urged, and is thence distributed to the rocks around. Lime^ also^ is taken up in a similar manner. But the rock itself has oflen afibrded the ingredients for the forming mineral^ during the passage of the filtrating fluid through it. By the same means, the ad- joining walb of a seam or dyke — which received the draining from the rock of the dyke — ^are often penetrated by aeolitic minerals.
it may be thought that I am giving undue influence to a fiivourite theory, and in the minos of some, these condnsions may be set down among mere speculations in science. But
* Chlorite consists of the same elements as nugite or hornblende, ex* cept tli;it the lime is cxcUidcd and water added. Tbcgr are Nlic% magoena, oxide of iron, with \% per cent, of water.
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and the aUied Aockt*
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the circumstances attending submarine igneous action, I am persuaded, are not generally apprehended. What is the con- cfitioo of the deep bed of an ocean ? Even at a depth of dmee mileSf the waters press qdou the bottom with a force cqwrakot to a million of pounds to the square foot ; and with am a fbrdng power above» can we set limits to the depth to wiudi these sea-waters— magnesia and soda solutions — will penetrate? Will not sTery cayem, eyery pore, far down, be filled tmder snch an enormous pressnre? Let a fissnre open by ao earthqtiake efibrti and can we conceive of the tremen* doos violence with which the ocean will rush into the opened fimore? Let kva ascend, can we have an adequate iuea of the effect of this conflict of fire and water ? The rock rises, blown up with cavities like amvgdaloid, and will a long in- terval elapse before every air-cell will be occupied from the incombciit wnler ? Suppose an Hawaii to be situated beneath die waves, pouring forth its torrents of liquid rock ; — this idaod contains about five thousand square miles, wJiich is less than the probable extent of many a r^ion of submarine enip- tioii; — soppose^ I say, the fires were opened and active over an area off some thousands of square miles--are there no efi*ectsi to be discovered of this action ? Inhere is no geolo^st that pretends to deny the premises — the fact of such submarine eruptionsj the ocean's pressure, the effect of fire in heating water, and ii^ giving it increased solvent power; and why should ihey not reason upon the admitted facts, and study out the necessary consequences ? Surely, if tliere have been effects, we miglit expect to see some of them manifested in the cavi- ties of the <: jt ctLcI rocks, which were opened at liie time to rei < \ e Uie waters and any depositions they might be fitted aiider the circumstances to make.
We are led by these considerations to another point in con- Qexion uiib this subject, — the probable condition under which the different amy^daloidal minerals havu Iteen formed. Have they all proceeded i\om lieated solutions, or all from cold so- lutions? or can we distinijuish some which are indubiuibly of one or lIil- oiIkt lauJe ol tDrmation
Bearing oii these t^ueslluns, wc iiolicc bucli lacLs a:^ are af- forded by the condition and relative positions of the minerals lo geodes. And I would here acknowledge my obligations to the valuable memcir, before alluded to, by Messrs. Jackson and Alger* The paneiQr of information on this snbject to be fonnd in the various accsoimts of similar ipcks by other writers is sopising. Even where special pains have been taken to dssenbe the mineral species, the relative positions of the mi- nerals are very seldom noted* It^has been altogether too com*
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J. D. Dana mi the Minerals q/ Irap
won among geologist! to treat niiiiml ipfewiation with a
degree of iieclect almost amounting to contempt^ although, at bets will prdMbly hereafter show, thay lie at Cha baaia of an iiDportaiil branch of geological science.
out to proceed wiih the subject befora ua. We Bud that
Quartz or chakedoi^^ and datMite^ very seldom overlie other mineral species in gcodes or aaBjgdaloidal cavttae% while the latter often overlie them*.
Prchnite is usually lowermost \\ iili reference to all the spe- cies except the two just im ruioned. (XcasioiMiliy it is louud upon analciniej as at tiie Kilpntrick hills.
Analcime \h coiiiHioniy situated below aUf except c|uartZy datliolite and prelnute.
Of the reniaininjT species, chabaziLc, stilbite, harmotome, Heulandite, scolecite, niesole, Launionite and apophyllite, it is more difficult to distinguish an order of arraii^cment. My invtstigatioaB oolj enable me to atate that chabante la oaaally eofered bj the rest (when eaaooiatad with them), It la lometiAea anperiapoied en atUbite ; and apophyllite ta almoit nnifbrml^ above all with whkh it may be associatad ; cahxpar is at diflerent times above and below. We thoa arrive at the Iblbwifig aa the naoal order of anperposition
1. Qnarta.
2. Datholita ?>. Prehnite.
4. Analcime.
5. Chabazite, fiarniotome.
6. Slilbite, Heulauditei scolectle, natroUte, mesoie, Lau- munite, apophyllite.
It is a reasonable inference that the species uhicli covers the bottom of a cavitv was first deposited, and, as a general rule, that tlie oLlieib above wtie formeti, ciditr simultaneously, or in succession upon the lowermost, as their order may iudi- oate* Each is usually perfect in its most d^icate crysudliia- thMis» ao that we cannot suppoaa that the mioerala llrat do- poeltHl oAeo niiderwciit change after their depoaltiony though instances oT this may no doubt be detaotsd.
It la aboevidsnty that if there wena any species inmed |Nre> vious to the complete cooling of the rodk» or if any reaonne fom their formation an elevated temperature, they are those first depo8ilad-*»the first in the above series. A few oooaidefw* tiona will |ilnoe this^ if possible, in a clearer li^t.
Quartz, as we have stated in a preceding page, and fiilly lemerked iqpon elsewherai enters largely into sointieii daring
* The writer has observed stitbite, apophyllite, cnle-ipar aad prsliiiite ovat^fiai dathiHi% seA Miioei ipQCief ovsr pnlwili^
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submarine erupttcms. This solution has been showni by actual expcrimenti to be a necessary consequence of such action. This &ct corresponds most completely with the above dedwy tkms. Quartz usually forms the first lininc of the geode or aniygdaloidal cavity} when it is found at all, and, moreover, it is the most abundant of all amyodaloidal minerals.
Quartz may also proceed from decompositions of the rock in the coid, and incrustations of this kind are known lo occur ; but such an explanation does not account for its generally fireoeding all other species in filling cavities and seams in trap rocks, and is insufficient to produce the large deposits of silica, eomeCimes amounting to many tons in a single ^eode.
It should not be understood that the quartz is supposed to be derived always from the same hcntcd wnters \hn\ attended the formation of the containing rock ; for later ei iiptions in the same region might, nt a subsequent period, produce a like result: yet, as its place in the series jiroves it to ix- the earliest in formation, it has probably been generally tleposited from the water iieated durmg the eruption of the rock. Leaving quartz, we pass to the other minerals.
It is a striking fact that the minerals next to cjiiart/ ir} tlie table giveii — dalhotite^ jirehnite and awa/awit— contain less water than either of the following species. While the others indude from 10 to SO per cent, the first, dathoUte^ has but 5 per cent., prehnite about 4{ per cent., and anakime 8 per cenu^ This fact certainly leans^ towaids the view of their fanving originated at a somewhat more elevated temperature than the other species — ^the same condusion that is drawn firom their lower position in geodes.
The fact, also, that prehnite has been found forming pseudo- morphs, bears the same way ; for heat would be uecessary, in aU probability, to aid in removing the original mineral. The vast extent of some prehnite veins— occasionally, as Dr. Jackson has observed, three or four feet wide — refers to an origin like that of the quartz in similar rocks. Indeed, there aeeros iittk doubt that prehnite is often derived from that
* The fuilowiiig table &how» the per-centagc ol water, and givci> ui the same tinoe a general view of the composition of the seolites : —
SUicttj barainc aad^ Sme. — Datholite (5 Aa.).
Silico,n!uminft, /}mr. — Prehnite Mi Aq.). HciiIaiuHtc 14 Aq.), Sfolecite (1 Aq.;. Efmtilbtte (14 Aq.). btiUitte (17 Aq.). Laumonite(]7 Aq.).
SUica, alumina^ lime and poUu/i^ or mdiL'^Mwih (12 Aq.)> Thomsonite <UAq.). PbilUfNile(17Aq.). Chabaslte <2l Aq.).
SUica, aluuiluft^ and cither soda, baryta or sfronfrr Anal^imc (§ Aq.). ^«f;ifrf>liTc A f}.) Harmotome (1 T Af]. V fkewsteritc (i3Aq.)i
^dicUf hmc and fudMh. — Apophyllite ^iti Aq.).
Silka, iSiMe^— I)ys€laiite (16i Aq.).
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1
portion of the silica in solution which entered into combina* tions 9t die timeVith the alumina and lime which the silioe* oua waten contained ; and prqbaUy the lime as well as silica was derived in part from an external source. The psendo- morphs prove that l^relinile may have been the result also of sabseanent eruptions, at the same time that they show the probeok necessity of heat for its formatioD.
Datholite is a oompomid of silica^ lime and boradc acidf with abottt 5 per cent, of water. Bcmdes the small per-centF^ a^e of water^ and its bdngy next to qoartSy the lowermost mineral in geodesy we find an additional fiiett alone almost decisive with regard to itB origin, in its containing boracic acid. Boracic ac id Is often evoRed about volcanoes or in vol- canic regions. The hot lagoons of Tuscany* and the volcano of Lipari, are the most noted examples.
Although boracic acid has never been detected in sea-water, there can be little doubt of its occurring in it. The usual modes of analysifi by evaporation would dissipate it, and of course it could not thus be delected exowt with special care and by operating on a large quantity or water. Borate of soda (boracite) is found only in beds of salt and gypsum, — both sea- water products. Moreover, borate of lime has been lately Ibnnd on the dry plains in the northern \):\yi of Cliili, along \\ iili ( umnion salt, iofiic salts, j^ypsum ninl oila r rnariue sahs : uud ail are so distributed oyw i\\c nrid cuuntry, that tlie region has been lately described as liaving been beyond doubt once the bed of the sea. These facts render it altogeilier probable that sen-water which gains access to volcanic fires is the source t)( the boracic acid in volcanic regions*.
If this be its origin, the necessity of heat and pressure must be admitted, in order to piutiuce the chemical combinations in (hitholite. Its elements are not those ot the feUpn r or other truj) minerals, like the zeolites superinij OM d on it; but they have coiuc troin an extraiituus source, and none is more pi ubable than die sea waters, which wciu licatcd at the sub- iiiaiinc uiuplion, and permeated the bed of molten rock shortly after ejection. Thus placed in circumstances of pres- sure and confinement, along with silica in solution, the vola- tile boracic acid might ent«r into the combination presented in datholite.
An interesting fact bearing upon the history of datholite
* The only other known source is the mineral tourmaline, quite nn im- probable ono in the case hff<>re k-. ft !•< {xi^siblo that rnnrnialiiic may nave received it« boracic acid Uoiu the ^iea during i;ranitic cruplionsj and the occnmMies of tU» flainoial ie tlie Ytdoity of trap dykat it caplafaicd ia the HIM manner.
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atld ike aUM Roda^ 61
observed by Dr. Jack^on at Kuweena Point, Lake Su- perior. 1 lie Llatholitc is otLeii toiiiid there in v«jin.^ with na- tive copper, and is associated in soiiic places with a curious slag of boro-silicate of iron and copper. iSoraetimes the cry- stak of datholite, as well as the prehnite and calc-spar, con- tii scal^ or filaments of native copper. These very im- poitaiit obwfatioM seem to establish the same origin for the thne miaeralsy ibr Dr« Jackson slates that they appear to be matenporaiieoas ; and if calo<^par has been deposited from Siohrtioiii the same holds true of the others. They have all bscB fonned subsequent to the copper filaments of the cavities far thqr wera deposited around tnem; yet may have been the sot to form during the cooling of the rock. The boro-siii« cste of ifOD and copper has resulted from the same causes.
Aasktme approaches the zeolites in composltioQy but like the pr^ite and dotfaolite it contains less water, and is very <iifirent m its crystaUization. We have less evidence as to the heat necessary for its formation ; yet it was probably fermed at a somewhat elevated temperature.
With regard to the odier amygdaloidal minerals, we are in HtU greater doubt as to the necessiQr of heat. We cannot at pnMDt fully appreciate the efficiency of chemical agents in a nascent state acting slowly without heat through long periods* Many of them may require heat, and some may be the last depositions from the filtrating waters after they have nearly or quite attained their reduced temperature. But the forma- tion of zeolitic stalactites in caverns favours the view that some It least may form at the ordinary temperature by the slow tkcoinposition of the containini^; rock after it had emerged from the waves *. KiM stcn h is lately described a modern stellatcfi 7eolite forming incrustations on the pump- wells of the Ibrimielsfalirt mine near Frevi>erg. It consisted of silica, oxides of iron and nKinii;;iiie^e uud water. Further exaniina- Uon will probably bring more of these modern products to
The formation of particular minerals in certain regions de- pends of eniir-i- upon llie supply of the necessary in«rredients, "litre the supply of lime has been large, we slu)iild expect to fiiid some of the miiierals, prehnite, Heulandite, Laumonitc, slilbfte, scolecite, dysclasite, chabazlti , lui cai buiiate of lime decuiuposes the sdicate^i of pot^ish aiid soda. Instances of
* f aU* de* Mirnt, y. (4th Ser.) 486^ 184&
Carbonate of iron seems never to form from water at the siirnu-p, it^ ^uU(&Q» iic'poMting a h^dratcd peroxide of iron in>tead of the carbonate; it nnj therefore require a 6ubmer|jt:d condition of the rock, alUiough oot "~ a laised taBpcfstore.
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6S J. D. Dana on the Minerals qf Trap and ilie allUd Bocks,
this tiioctatioo of tbe liow acolitet with » ItnAMipplyof IkMi in the vicinity are conmon. When there b little or no lime^ or only the resnltt proceeding from tbe decomposing rockt die other leolitet are formed— the hydrons eiUcatea of duoiina and potash or eode^ oocasionally with some lime. Bat if a salt of baryta or strontia is present, the deeompositioo of the silicates of the alkalies takes place as by the linM^ and the mineral harmotome or Brewsterite is produced.
In the above explanations we have scarcely appealed to ono sonroe of amygdaloidal minerals admitted in theontset — their proceeding from vapours rising with the erupted rook} for it seems to be of but limited influence. Besides tbe arguments already brought forward, we state that the vapours which rise at the moment of eruption are insufficient. They inflate the rock or blow up the cavities ; but the little vapour required to open the cavities most assuredly could not afford by con- densation the mineral matter necessary to (ill them, — to pro- duce stalactites, stalagmite and successive layers ot minerals. The vfipours then, if the source, must have coiiiinued to rise Ibr some time alierward . But is it possible that vapours should rise up through thesolnl rock? Such does not l)a[)pcn in the case of recent volcanoes; lor iissure.-* arc (i[ttMed and then the vn pours escape. And could it happeii wall ilie water ubovr pi LS>in^ down into liie rock with the force of an ocean even a mile deep?
There may be instances uf this nuHle ol iVn rnaiion ; but that it should be the usual mode is irreconcilable wiLh ilie many facts stated. The lui ni aiul cundition of cfuartz or chalcedony in geodes, as well as the vast amount ut tiiii mliitial n\ £»oiiie cases, — the rclaLivc po:>iiions of the zeolites, and tlieir occur- rence as incrustations on rocks, or as fillings of cavities or seamSi and never in disseminated crystals through the texture of the rock^-T-tbe green eoating of tbe nodules, which is some- times a earbonate of oofiper when there is natite copper in the rock to nnderao alteration, — the correspondence between the elements of tm minerals and the composicion of the in*- dnding rock, and at tbe same time their contrast in being hydrous while the constituents of the latter are anhydrous^— and the known formation of aeolites in eavemib — these ▼arioua fiwts appear to establish infiltration as the prtnci|ial means by which amygdaloidal minerals have been pioducsd*
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XIII. Re/kdum m ike Bnolmtnm Jkfebrak EquoHons if the Fifth D^ee. By G* B. Jbrrard. fConttnued from ▼ol. xxvi. p. 574.]
47. nr^riK remarks in No. 11. i Llated to a difficulty which A iiiu&t arisii if we can, as bteiiis Lo liave been proved, succeed in tracing tlie equation for W to a cla.ss of equations of the sixth degree* the solution of which can l>e efiected. I have lately reconsidered the subject of that nnmber, and the exact nature of the difficulty in question will, I think» a|^)ear from what follows.
Since every symmetric function of the quantities Vi, Vk» Vf. will lie such as to remain unchanged whiUt one of the roots^ jTp continues fixed, and x^^ x. are permuted in
every possible way among themselTes* it might easily be shown that the equatbn Ibr V,
V» + C,Vw + .. + Ci5=0, will jutmit of l)eing resolved info five fiictors of the form
V» +i- C, V» + r,(*.) V + r,(*.) = 0,
oblaitied by writing 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 successively for a: and being expressive of rational functions, and such that r„ (.r^)
shall essentially involve x^. In this equation, tberdure, we cannot generally write ;„ (O) instead of r„ (a- J.
But tlie equation for V will evidently lend to twenty-five ex- pressions for the five roots jTj, x^ • • x^ obtainable Ironi a sy- stem ot iuoctions of x^ ;
The question therefore suggests itself: Is it permitted^ since the number of distinct values of x cannot exceed 5, to suppose that
(0),
or that the five roots, X), x^ . . without considering in what order they will arise, may h% expressed by
^9(0), ..^1^5(0);
and tlius toavoid tlie conclusion that the ecjuation of the third degree, at which we shall arrive, will, in the ordinary meaning of the term, he simultaneous with V'^+C,V'-*+ -f 0,5=0?
In fine, if we can ctiect the resolution ol algebraic equations of the fifth tli ^n ee, it must be possible to withdraw the terms involving iioni ^ [x^) considered throughout its extent, aJthougli we retain those which involve x^ in r (x^.
Loadon, December 13, 1845.
• See (310.
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XIV. Proceedingt of Learned Societies.
TTOYAL SOCIETY.
Nov. 27, " rpXPEHlMENTAL ttesearches io Elrotricity." By 1 mIa Michael Famday Esq., D.C.L., F.JI.S., &c. Nine- teenth Series. Srctinn 25 : On tlif^ Magtietizatioa of Ughty and tbe Illunitnntioii of Maj^netic T.ines of I-orcu.
For a long time past the author liad felt a strong persuasion, de- rived from philosophical conside rations, that among the several powers of oftlafe wnioh in their wioiis forms of operation od innt* ter produce difibrent duses of effee(B» there exists an intiiiiale rela- tloQ ; that they are connected by a common origin, have a reciprocal dependence on one another, and are capable, under certain condi- tions, of hoing^ conve rted the one into tlic other. Already have elec- tricity and magnetism att'orded fvidenee ofthis mutual eonvertihility ; and in extending his views to i w nh r sj)li('re, the author became con- vinced that these powers iiui>l haw relations with light also. Until lately his endeavours to detect the^c relations were unsuccessful ; but at length, on instituting a more searching interrogation of na^ tore, he arrived at the discoveiy recorded in the present paper, namely, that a ray of light may M electrified and magnetixed ; and that lines of magnetic force may be rendered luminous.
The fundamental experiment revealing this new and important fact, which establishes a link of eonnexion between two great de- partments of nature, is the fnllusvincf. A ray of li^iit isssuinp from an Argand lamp is first ]K>larized iu tlie liori/ouial plane by retiexion from a glass mirror, and then made to pass, for a certain space, through glass composed of silicated borate of lead, on its emeigence from which it Is viewed tiirougfa a Nichol*s eye-piece, o^»aUe of re- volving on a horizontal axis, so as to intercept the ray, or allow it to be transmitted, alternately, in the different phases of its re?oln* tion. The glass through which the ray p;i'-«'( <, and whieli th(^ author tL'nus the dimagmiic, is placed between the two ])oles of a powerful electro- magnet, arranged in such a position as that the line oi ntaq- nctic forces resulting iVom tiieir combined action shall coincide with, or difibr but litde ftom the course of the ray In its passage through the glass. It was then found that If the eye-piece had been so turned as to render the ray invisible to the observer looking through the eye-piece before the electric carrsnt had been est&lished, it be- comes visible whenever, by the completion of the circuit, the mag- netic force is in o])eration; but instantly l>eeoines again invisi!*!'^ on the cessation of that f'nrec by the intcrriipiinfi of the circuit. Fur- ther investigatioji show t d that the magnetic action causes tlie plane of polarization of the polarized ray to rotate, for the ray is {^aia rendered viable by taming the eye-piece to a oertain extent; and that the direction of the rotation unpreased upon the ray, when the magnetic influence is issuing from the south pole, and proceeding in the same direction as the polarized ray, is right-handed, or si- milar to that of the motion of the hands of a watch, as estimated by an observer at the eye-piece. The direction in wiiicU the rotation
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teto place^ wilit of course* be ftwwmA bf imning either the course of the ray or the poles of the magnet. Hence it follows that
the polarizt^M ray i** made to rotate in the same direction as the eur- rents of positive electricity are circulating, both in tlie helices com- posing the electro>magnet, and also in the same direction as the bypotiietkal currents, which) according to Ampere's theory, circu- late in the aiibatanoe of a steel awgnet. Tbe nilatorj aotioo vee ibaiid to be alwayi directly proportional to the iiit6iiiity of tlie magnetic force, but not to that of tbe electric canent ; and also to be proportionnl to the length of that portion of tfie ray which re- ceives tbe Hitlnence. The interposition of substances which occa- sion no dii»turbauce of the magnetic forces, produce no change in these effects. Magnets consisting only of electric helices act with leu power tban wben anned with in»i» and in wliieh magnetie no- tion is eonaequently more stronglj developed.
The author purroet the inquiry liy varying in a great number of wavs the circumstances in wliich tlii-^ newlv-discovered influence is exerted; and finds that the moditicatiuns thus introduced in the re- sults are all explicable by n tereiice to the jjeiieral law above stated. Tkuii Liie effect is produced, though in a iu:>a degree, when the po- larised fay ie ealjeeCed to the action of an ocdinary magnet, inetead •f one that derivee ita power from a voltaic ennent; iumI It la alto weaker when a single pole only is employed* It is, on the other hand, increa:«ed by the addition of a hollow cylinder of iron, placed within the helix, the polarized ray traversing its axis being: then arit il lipdri %vith frreni energy. Helices act witli equal power in any part ol the cyimdric space which they enclose. The heavy glass aaed io these experimeota waa found to poaaew in ilaelf* no wpSiiBo ■Huneto-induetive action.
Different media differ extremely in the degree in winch th^ am capable of exerting the rotatory power over a polarized ray of light. It is a power which has no ajjparent relation to the other physical propertie*?. whether chemical or mechanical, of tiiesje bodies. Yet, however it may ditier in its degree, it in always the same in kind ; the rotation it effects ia inTariably io one direction, d^ndent, how- evcTt on the direetiooa of the rav and of the magnetic force. 1» liiie respect it differs essentiallj man the rotatory power natnrally pOMessed by many bodies, sncn as quartz, sugar, oil of turpentine, &c., which exhibit the phenomena of circular polarization; for in some of these the rotation takes place to the right, and in others to ^e left. When, therefore, &uch Hub&taiices ai^e employed as dimag- netics, the natural and the superinduced powers tend to produce either the same or opposite rotationa ; and the reaulting eflfecta are atodified according aa they are cumnlattve in the former eaae^ and differential in the latter.
In the concluding: "Section of the paper, the author entei^ into <?e- neral considerations on the nature of the newly-discovered influence of electricity and magueti^m over light, and reiuat ks tiiat ail these powers pu&i>eN» in common a duality of character which Constitutes them a peculiar daas, and allbrds an opening which before waa
Mil. Mag. S. 3. Vol. 86. No. 184. Jan. 1846. F
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66 InielUgence aud MhceUamom Articles*
wanting for the appliance of theae powen to the investigation ol
this and other radiant agencies. The phenomena thus brought to li'jht confirm the views entertainet! by the author relative to the con- hlituiion of matter as hr ing spheres of powf^r, for the operation of which the conceptiuu ui a solid nucleus is uot iiecessarv ; aud U-d(h to the presumption that the influenoe of magnetism on oodies which •shilMt no magnetic propertiea oonaiatv in producing in then a atate of etectric tenaion tending to a cnrrant; while on iron, nickel, and other bodies satceptible of magnetiaait correnta wee aetuaUy eatap bUshed by thp same influence.
The author States that he is still engaged in the prosecution of these inquiries.
**0n the Action of the Kays of the Spectnun on Vegetable Jnaoaat" heing an Extraet from a Letter bj Mn, M. Somerriileto Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart^ dated Rome, September 20, IS4Sm Communioaled by Sir John F. W. Herscbel, Bart, F.R.S.
In thi' oxpcrimeots of which t!ie rosults are here recorded, the solar tiprcti um was condensed by a lens ot tiint glass of sevt ii inc lu-^ and a halt' focus, maintained in the same part of the screen by keepiug a pin-hole or pencil -mark constantly at the corner of the red rayti, whioh were aharply defined by behw Tievad through bine apeo* taelea; and the appuatas was covered with blaek ek& in order to esclude extraneoaa light. Thiek white letter-paper, moialeBed with the liquid tn be examined, was exposed wet to the spprfrum, as it was found tiiat the action of the coloured light was thus rendered more iiiiniediale and more intense, tiuw when the surface of tiie paper was dry.
The action of the apst/lium at the jnnetion of the laYander with the violet rays waa found hi aome caaee to be difierent from what il ia with either of theae eoloitra aeparately, indicating a break in the
continuity of action, and suggesting the idea of a secondary spcc> tnitn In manv instances the yellow and green rays exert a power- fui iiitlutruce uii vegetabh^ substaiK i >, an influence apparently nn- coDoected with heat; for the dariccumg is generally leai»t under the fed raya and inmiedfately bdow themt wheia the ealorifle raya aie moat abundant. Hie aethmt In a great nnaber of oaaet, pior duces insulated spots In difoont porta of the ifieotrum, but more especially in the region of the rays of mean refrangibility, in which neitiier the calorific nor the chemical poM prs aro the grcjitest. The j)()int of maximum intensity is sometimes ult( red bv tho arldition of aeidb, alkalies, or diluted alcohoL But altogeliier> as tiie authof ilatea, the aetion of the different parts of the spectrum seema to bo very caprieioui^ the ohannea of colour prodnoed l>eiDg eaeeedingly inugnlar and nnaeoountanle.
XV. Liidliggnee and Misedkouom AriieUt,
ACTION OF NITEIC ACID OR WAX.
WHEN wax is boiled in nitric acid, the same phsnomena, accord- ing to M. Qeriuurdt, result aa when the acid ia made to aet
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Jnieiitgetue mid MisceUammm Jrtideg, 67
upon (Stearic acid or other fatty bodies ; muc)i nitrous vapour is dis- engaged ; but tbe action ie boI ao vivid, as when oliTe oil« for ex- ample, la treated by the edd.
Abont 4300 grains of wax were boiled with fatiber less than two pints of common nitric acid for about two hours, and the mixture, allowed to cool, became a polid mass ; this was perfectly dissolved by carbonate of soda, with the production of slight effervescence. On cooling the whole became one mass ; the wax was unctuou:^ and of an apricot colour. After twenty •fonr houn' ebullition, the greater
Crtof the wax waa dhnohred in the nitric add; an oily eabataaee, ving the smell of laocid butter, floated on the solution ; this was entirely dissolved by. potaeh s thia oil waa acid» and oould not be
distilled ^n^hont drromposiriGr- find possessed all the prO]>erties nttri- butcd by M. Laurent to n/nlcic or oenanthylic acid. The formation of this acid has been observed to occur, as is well known, during the oxidizement of stearic and oleic acids, and other fatty bodies.
Wax was afterwards boOed with twice its weight of nitric add, during several days, until all the oily matter disappeared ; the first crystalline grains which deposited by the cooling of the eolation, were pimelic acid, as shown by analysis, which gave carbon 52, hydrogen 7 S, indicating as its composite, carbon 52*5, hydrogen 7*5. oxygen 4U in 100 parts, or C H« O*.
The mother- water yielded a considerable quantity of adipic acid^ but which appeared to be mixed with li{ac add. The last portiona of tlM mother>water yielded no ecyetala, but were rendered turbid by the addition of water, and depoaited fresh portions of oily azoleic add. Lastly, when the wax was treated with nitric add, till red Tapours ceased to bo prfiduqed, fine crystals of succinic acid were obtained. The formation of this body has been already shown by Mr. RonaId8.>-^Mi. deCh, et de Phys',, Oct. 1S45.
DRY DISTILLATION OF WAX.
M. C. Oerhardt states, that when wax is submitted to dry distilla>
tinn. there condenses in the receiver a solid, ^vhite pranular matter, floatmg in an oily liquid, and during the whole tinu of tht; operation a mixture of carbonic acid and bicarburetted hydrugeu gases is erolved. The condensed portions consist of a fatty add, a solid car* bnretted hydrogen, and aevend liqmd carbnretted hydrogens ; the pfodocts become more and more impure as the operation approacbea its termination, and sometimes, when the last remains of the wax are carbonized, a small quantity of a reddish solid mnttcr is obtrn'ned. If the products be separately ct ivt d at different tiuu -, it is found that the fatty acid passes first, and nftcnvards the solid t arljuretted hydrogen ; the liquid carburetted hydrogens uxe among the last pro-
dndi. When the diatiDajtloB k pcfiafmed, there remaina
little dae than a coaly rendoe.
The flrat portions of the distillation saponify almost entirely, ex- cept n few particles of solid carburetted hydrogen. The soap yields, by the action of hydrocbkric acid, a perfectly white iiUty acid ; wlien
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-68 liUeUigence and MtMceUaiuma Artides,
erjrstnlUced once or twice from astlier slightly alcoholized, this acid melu at HO^Falir*, and becomea a tadwed maaa on cooling; thia acid* after being iuaed* yielded by analyaia, —
Carbon 75*1
Hydrogen 12*8
OiLygea 12*1
100'
wbich giTea as the fefmnla C^' H*' O*, and the enbatance produced
was therefore margaric acid* The solid carhuretted hydrog^ ^riiidi aooompanies the above anbstance is paraffin, as shown by the expe" • rimenta of M. £ttling.*-vlJMi. deCh.eide Fi^t., Nov. 1845.
ANALYSIS OF PH08FHATB OP AtUMIM A. BY M. A. IkBLBSSe.
M* Danhauser discovered at Bernay, near Epemay, a white sub- stance, considerably resembling alumina dried uq a filter ; it invested a gangue rolonred by tho oxides of iron and manganese, and ap- peared to belong to the plastic clay formation. Several collections in Paris contain specimens of it, but that examined by M. Delesse contained phosphoric acid.
In the doted tube tide aubatanoe bkdcena and yielda mnch water, containing bituminous matter ; it is acid, reddens litmus paper, and appears alio to corrode glass slightly, which may indicate the pre- sence of ft little hydrofluoric acid. !n the outer flame of the blow- pipe, the bhu k colour prodnru d Ijvthe carbon of the oru'anic matter disappcaii? and the substaiico Ijccuaies white; it is iutuiiible. With the salt of phosphoru^i it readily dissolves, and a very transparent bead is fonned; with cerbooate of aoda this snbetanoe swells, but does not diaaolTe ; with nitrate of cobalt it yields a fine blue rolour.
When not calcined this substance dissolves entirely and with the « gpreatest facility in acids ; it also dissolves, but with difficulty, in pot- ash. After calcination, it is scarcely and with diihculty acted upon ^y acids.
It will be observed that the substance poirsesses all the properties of pure alumina, and, as already observed, it baa the appearance ol it ; the presence of phosphoric acid was, however, asoertained by the
process of Vauquelin and Thenard ; it also contiuns a little ttme. which is undoubtedly in the state of carbonale« forwhenaefeed upon
by acids there is a disengagement of g&s.
Alter several hours' drying, so as to expel the hygroinrt; ie moist- ure, the loss amounted to ^>out 10 per cent ; and by analysis the substance yielded, —
Phosphate of alumina 46
Water and organic matter. ..... 49
Carbonate of Ume and lose .... 5
100
M. Delesse states t)mt he did not possess a sufficient quantity of the minimi to deleruune the quantity of phosphoric acid; but it is
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liiUlligenct and Miscellaneous AiLicles. 69
evident that it raust form a distinct species from wavellite, which contains 2U to 30 per cent, of water, wliile the phosphate of B€nion contains 49 per cent, and an organic substance. Vauquelin has also described, in the 21st vol. of the Annaies de Chimiv et de Physique, •n hydrated phosphate of alumina, from the Isle of Bourbon, the ccnnpoatioa of which is also diffeient ftom that of wttvelUte, and likewise oootams ammonia. — Jmialw dn Muus, 1844.
A NSW PLANET.
The Astronomer Royal has forwarded to tlie Times newspaper tlie following letter from Prof. Encke of Berlin, relating the disco- very of a new planet. Mr. Hind had previously communicated an extract of a letter from Prof. Sclnimacher, announcing the fact of Mr. Hencke's new planet, accunijiiuuLd with a statement on the part of Mr. Hmd, tiiat he could not hud uny star answering the descrip- tUm of iiie supposed new one*
"Berlin, Dec. 15th.
" On the 13 th of December, Mr. Hencke, of Driessen, gave notice diat he had found a star of the ninth magnitude, in a fSaee where before there was none. He gave its position by reference to the star-map of the Berlin Academy, 4th hour (which particular map was very carefully dra^vn by Prof. Knorr), from wliich its place appears to ha\c been : Dec. 8. — At 8 hours; right ascension in arc, 65° 25'; declination north. 12° 41'.
" Yesterday, Dec. 14, we sought for it with our refractor, and foimd, by comparison with the star-map of the Berlin Academy (whidi alone, on account of the fulness of its details, could have enabled US to discover it), a star of the ninth magnitude, not marked in the map, whose place was : Dec. 14. — At 6 hours 28 min. mean time, right ascension in arc, 64° 4' 53"* 2. At 12 hours 43 mio. mean time, right ascension in arc, 64" 1' 10"'3.
We then determined the following places with the wire micro- meter, each place being the mean of five observations. At 13 hours 34 min. 55*6 sec mean time, right ascensioo in time, 4 hours 16 min. 2-44 see.; dedinatioii north, 12° 39' 54"'2. At 13 hours 42 min. 36*5 sec., right ascension in time, 4 hours 16 min. 2'08 sec. ; decli- nation north, 12° 39' 53"-l. At 14 hours 33 min. 271 sec . right ascension in time, 4 hours 16 min. 0*2 sec. ; decliAation north, 12° 39' 52"*1. Or, taking the mean, at 13 hours 56 min. 59-7 sec. mean time; right ascension in arc, 64° 23"* 6; declination north, 12° SB' 53"-l.
" The motion is retrograde, and its daily amount, as determined ^m the observations, eight hours apart, is— in right ascension, 14'
81 "'2 of arc; in declination it is quite insignificant.
" Mr. Hencke's place of December 8th agrees very nearly with this.
*• The star is probably a new planet near its opposition. Vesta is pretty near it, and is also in opposition.
On account of the difficulty of following it, I have thought it
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70 Intelligence and MGsedUmeim ArikUi.
best to send yon the T!ew« directly ; and I beg you to make it known in England, thnt a sutticient number of observRtidas may schju he collected. Excuse the shortness of this letter, which is writteu in great haste. Yours, &c. **Bnckb.**
Professor Airj says, there appean tD lie no maomJile dombt tluKfc Che object to which the foregoing rdatw is a new planet.
Mr. Hind has Binee observed the new etsr: At0h.Mmm*15Bee;, sidereal time, on Wednesday evening, the right ascension of the new planet was 4 hs. 8 min. 17*58 sec, and the declination 12° 45' 3*2"" 6, north. Hp was enabled to establish its motion in K.A. from the observations made at Mr. Bishop's Observatory, Regent's Park, on tliat evening. The planet ha^ tlie apptaiauce of a star of the ninth or tenth magnitude. — Literary Gazetiet Dec. 27.
The followiiii^^ lettsr from the Astronomer Royal has smee been published in the JtsMt newspiq)er o£ the S9th inst* : —
Royal Obssmttoiy, Grsenwicht Dec* f7* Sir, — have this day leoeived from Prof. Sebnmacher a letter re* ladng to the new planet, of which I request you to publish the foL- lowing eztraet»
I am» Sir, jour obedient Servant,
G. B. AiRT.
(Bztiaet of a letter from PlrolenQr Schumacher.)
" Mr. Encke obtained an observation on the 20th of December, and this has enabled him to give an approximate sketch of the oibit
of the new planet. I send you the element^ r —
*' Epoch of mean longitude, 1846, Jan. 0, at f) hour, 89° 32' 12*-1 ; longitude ot perihelion. 214*^ 53' 7**0; longitude of ascending node, 119° 44' 37*-5; inelmation, 7° 42' 8''-4 ; eccentricity, 0-207993; logarithm of semiaxis major, 0*42144 ; daily mean motion in longi- tudob SSy'^'GS ; periodic time, 1566 days.
** The discoverer has lefl the determination cl tiie name to Mr. Bncke, and Mr. Bndce calls it ' Aetrsea.'
*• YourSy &e., H. C. ScauKACBia.
^Altooa^Dec^a.*'
NOTICE OF AN AL HOilA BOREALIS SEEN AT MANXHESTEK.
To the Editors of the PkUoiophkal Magofine oad JmmmL
GsmrLBMEN,
I will thank you to record in your Philosophical Magazine, &c. an aurora borealis which was seen at this place on Wednesday evening", the 3rd instant. It was first peen as a luminous arch about six o'clock ; at half-past six the arch was complete throughout, from the eastern to the western horizon, with a span of upwards of 100°. Hie arch of light was periectly steady and of an unusual breadth, nnoh broader indeed then any 1 have befinenotieed. Xliedtitiide of the arch also was unusuaUy great, a Ursa MiffoHg, then near the meridian bmath the pole, was within the lower maigin of the
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Meleorological Observations
71
himmottB band, whose highest point was about the meridian of
A Dracottis. From the upper edge of the western limb sprang seve* ral extensive streamers ; but the light of the moon (then about four days old) prevented their being very brilliant, hh r rtly after seven, heavy clouds completely covered the aurora, showing their distance to be less than that of the luminous meteor which they obscured* and which, by their long continuance, they finally closed.
We had some veiy heavy hail showers during the day, and a per- lectgale of wind the previous night, llie same day a terrific thunder- storm vbited a great part of Wales, killing aeveral head of cattle and doing other serious damage to property.
I am. Gentlemen,
Your obedient Servant,
Manchester, December 19, 1845. W. Stuhobon.
If BTSOBOLOGIOAL OBSBBVATIONS FOR NOV. 1845,
Ckiswiek. — November 1. Sliglit base: very fine. 2. Slight fog: ovcrcatU Frosly : fi : dear and frosty. 4. Frosty, with dense fog : clear and frosty at nigbt. 5' 1 rusty and foggy: very fine: overcast. 6. Very 6oe: ruin. 7. Clctf and fine : cloudy : nin. 8. Cloudy. 9* Vciy flnt: alight raiii. la Ycrj fine: heavy clouds. II. Haxy: rain. 12. Verj fine. 13. Haiy : very fine. 14. Foggy tbrouff bout. 15. Foggy : 6ne. 16. Den&ely clouded : nin. 17. Fine: nlo. 18. Cloaoy: dear. l^BohtePona^ with nam thowery : vary clear at nighr. 20. Fine. 21. Overcast : heavy rain. 22. Fine : clear and cold. 23. Shar{> frost : fine. 24. Very fine : foggy at nighL 25. Uniformly overcast : •light rain : foggy. 26. Densely overcast. 28. Cloudy. 29. Heavy rain. 30. Cloudlaia ; ovarcaat at uglit.^]llaaa tampantufa of iha numtb 1*^3 abova thaavcng«b
Soaton. — Nov. 1. Fine. 2, X Cloudy. 4 — 7. Une. 8. Cloudy : rain early AM, 9, Fine. 10. Foggy. 11. Fine: raio r.M. 12. Cloudy. 13* Fine, 14, 15. Cloody. 18. Cloudy : tain aarlj a.m. 17. Cloudy : rain early a m. :
rain cm. 18. Cloudy : rain early a.m. 19. Stormy : rain a.m. 20—23 Fim-. it-im Fine : snow and rain early am. 25— 28. Cloudj^* 29. Cloudy : rain t,», aOL Une.
Sandwidk Manx, Orkney. — Nov* 1. Bright : cloudy. 2. Fine : clout^. 3. Hoc tftoat; cloudy* 4. Bright: daar. 5. Ckar. 6. Damp : cloudy. 7. Damp: baxy. 8. Drizzle : cloudy. 9. Cloudy : damp. 10. Damp. II. Cloudy : fog in valleys. 12. Frosty : fog : clear. 13. Fine. 14. Fine : frost: fine. 15. Fine: idoudy. 16. Fine : rain. 17. Fine: showers. 18. Cloudy. 19. Hain : cloudy. 90. Siiaarars. 21. Showata : aiact. 22. Cloudy : tbower^. 23. Cloudy : snow, shower*,. 54. Cloudy : snow: rnin. C 7. Showers: rain. 2G. Showers : thunder aod»iiovvcrs. 27. Showers: haii; showers. 2S. Cloudy: showers. 29. Cloudy: alMMran: daal. 90. Sleet>tlio«rcva t anow on bilk.
Applegartk Mnnse^ Dumfriet'Mre.—l^vw. 1. Pair and fino. S. Fair and chilly. 3. Fair, but dull: frost am. 4. Frost, hoar: tAtax and cold. 5. Frost: dull.
^. Fair and line : fresh 7 — 10. Rain early a.m. 11. Fair and fine. 12— Hoar-frost: fine. 14. Raw and cloudy. 15. Raiu p.m. iC Heavy rain r.M. 17. Fine:dry. 18» Id. Heavy showers. Fine a.m. : rain r.M. 21. Showers. 22. Frobt. 23. Frost : a few dro])^ nf rnin. i;4. Frost: cloudy p.m. S5* Wat,
^6 — 2*<. Very heavy rain. 29. Slio^rtrs. :KJ. Heavy rain p.m.
Mean temperature of the month 42*^*7
Meaii laaBparaiura of Nov. 1844 43 *6
Blcan temparatinv of Nov. for twcnly-Um yaan . 40 *8
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LONDON, EDINBURGH and DUBLIN
PHILOSOPHICAL MAGAZINE
AND
JOURNAL OF SCIENCE.
[TlilAD SERIES*]
FEB It UAH Y 184G.
XVI. On the Application of the Photographic Camera to Me» teorologieal RegittraHon. By HfiNftY CoiXENy Etq**
CMnth a Plata]
IN April 1844, Mr. Ronalds applied to me for the purpose of <M>taining some photographic repmentfttioni of figures, Ibrming a sort of pictorial register of atmospheric alectri- eity " upon glasa plates coated with Canada Dalsam, which fi|[ure8 had been eaccated at the Kew Observatory by means ot his electrograph, described in the Fourteenth Report of the British Associotioa. The desired result was ouickly obtained by the usual photog^uc process^ and also by tlie camera ; the latter being found however, as was to be expected, the greatly superior mode. Several other impressions were afterwards made from figures on coated metallic plates, some of which were shown attached to Mr. Konalds's report to the meeting a» York. The sharpness and delicacy of the poaiiive impres- sions thus obtained gave rise to some experiments, made by lis conjointly, for the purpose of applying the photographic camera to the registration of Volta's electrometer, the ther- mometer, aial Uie siphon barometer, i lie projection ol sha- dows on photographic paper, which, by the way, had been alnaady proposed and tried br seferal personsy was at once obiecied to oy Mr. Ronalds, whose knowledge oif the delicacy lequired In obcervin^r and registering the wioiis instnimentt at the Observatoryi miKie him fully aware of the necessily of otauiing as perfect definition as the best optical arrange- ment would produce ; an excelleiit ccmipound lens, made and kindly lent to as by Mr. Ross, was therefore used, and hai been emplojed on endb of the instrmnentsi i. e* the electro*
* Gonunanicated hf tbs Author. Ml/. Mag. a 9. Vol 88. 165. JMu 1846. O
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74 Mr, H. Collea on the AppUcatioH cf PkoiiJgngf^,
meter, tbe b«rckniftl«v the liianiioiiietMry aod a aeries of experimental obaenrations permanently registered at Kew.
Tbe aecomiMDylng figure (Plate (IL B^. 1) k part of f day's registration of the effect of atmospheric electricity on VoUa's electrometer; the gradual decline of daylight is shown, and also the contlmiation of the registration, by artificial light; without the use of the latter. It is obvious that the ap» plication of photography to these purposes would be very in- complete, if not wholly useless; and it may perhaps, in some cases, be advisa!)!e to make its n^^e constant.
The vnvious iiUtiisities oriiii lit W orn a clouded sky frefjucntly {Tive rise {oi course) to variations in deplli of tint (jn the I'apLM , which thus becomes an approximation to Sir John Ut i sclicl's actinograph ; and it may be liere w orth while to remark, that sometimes, when with such a ski/ these intensities of action on tlie paper arc au^mtultd, ihe electriciLj ul strciie weather nm- nifests a tendency to increase also ; this fact may be compared with the almost invariable tendency of the son's light and heat, in a clear sky, to dimnisk the tenaiott of Cboaa cflectrometeni which reectve their ohai^gea by absorption*
The calotype process is that whioh b used* being, of all those upon paper, the most sensitive^ which qiiality b highly assential during the use of artifleial light; it is very advan- tageously employed for these purpoacs» instead of the Da- guerreotype, on account of its dieapness, and also on account of the facility with which repreaeBtattooa can be obtained of any required Icntrth,
In the apparatus at present constructed, the paper is moved by a clock at the rate of one inc li [)cr hour, and is cut into pit ces nine inclies long; but for cou^iaiii use ihcy should be twelve inches long,